PRIMARY 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



ADAPTED TO DRA1 TEAT II, 



i (NATHAN BADGLE^ 



N E w fORK 

h !' 1.1-m ! !> \.\ i III 



I LIBRARY OF COM 



iw Irn^h | 

I UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. | 

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PRIMARY 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



ADAPTED TO ORAL TEACHING. 



By JONATHAN BADGLEY. 




NEW YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOK. 

FOR SALE BY ROBERT RUTTER, 

82 BEEKMAN STREET. 

1S76. 



.332- 



COPYRIGHT, 1876, by JONATHAN BADGLET. 



Electrotyped by Printed by 

SJIITH & Jtc£>OUGAL. E. 0. JENKINS. 



^OJMTENTg. 



ETYMOLOGY. page 

Exclamations 6 

Nouns 7 

Pronouns 9 

Adjectives 10 

Verbs 12 

Prepositions 14 

Adverbs 16 

Adjuncts 19 

Connectives 19 

Proper and common nouns 22 

Collective, abstract, verbal, and 

sentential nouns 22 

Different kinds of pronouns 23 

Gender 24 

Number 25 

Person 25 

Case 26 

Declension of pronouns 27 

Proper, common, and compound 

adjectives 28 

Different kinds of adverbs 28 

Comparison 29 

Exercise in parsing nouns and 

pronouns 30 

Exercise in parsing adjectives and 
adverbs, prepositions and con- 
nectives 41 



PAGE 

Regular and irregular verbs 46 

List of irregular verbs 47 

Transitive and intransitive verbs. 52 

Voices 54 

Transitive verbs used in both 

voices 54 

Moods 56 

Tenses 57 

Participles 58 

The number and person of a verb 58 

Conjugation of verbs 59 

Principal, auxiliary, and defective 

verbs 66 

The signs of the moods and 

tenses 68 

Exercise in parsing verbs 69 

Promiscuous exercise in parsing. . 78 
The subject and the predicate dis- 
tinguished 81 

SYNTAX. 

Sentences and clauses 84 

The rules of syntax 85 

Notes to the rules of syntax 87 

Models for correcting sentences. . 94 

Sentences to be corrected 96 

Corrections of false syntax 102 



PREFACE. 



TN making this little book, I have regarded the pecuniary 
interest of parents, as well as the benefit of their children 
and the convenience of teachers. It contains all that is neces- 
sary for beginners, and much that may be made useful to older 
pupils who have spent considerable time in studying English 
grammar. 

Teachers will find it very convenient in giving oral instruc- 
tion. It is, indeed, a representation of actual oral teaching ; and 
it will save them a great deal of time and labor, if they let 
their pupils study it carefully and drill themselves in each exer- 
cise very soon after they are taught orally, so that they will not 
forget what they hear. 

It teaches one thing at a time, advancing gradually from the 
easy to the difficult, and thus avoids confusing the learner. It 
is chiefly confined to etymology and syntax; which are clearly 
explained in familiar discourse. It contains models for parsing 
every part of speech in all its variations, and sufficient exercises 
in false syntax for young grammarians. 

JONATHAN BADGLEY. 

New Yoek, October, 1876. 



CONVERSATION I. 

A GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR AND THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

James. — How do we express our thoughts ? 

Mr. Smith. — We put words together, so as to make 
sentences; thus, " Birds fly. The sun shines. Good 
children obey their parents and teachers." 

Such expressions are called sentences, because they 
make complete sense. 

Grammar is the art of making correct sen- 
tences and showing the nature and use of all 
their parts. 

It is divided into four parts ; Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography is the art of writing words cor- 
rectly and showing the nature and use of letters. 

Etymology is the art of classifying words cor- 
rectly and showing all their variations and their 
derivation. 

Syntax is the proper use of words in making 
sentences. 

Prosody is the proper pronunciation of words 
and sentences; comprising orthoepy, elocution, 
punctuation, and versification. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

The parts of speech are the different sorts of words 
that we use in speaking and writing. 

"We have eight parts of speech ; exclamations, nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, adverbs, and 
connectives. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

To express our feelings, we use such words as ! 
ah ! and fie ! which are called exclamations. 

An exclamation is a word abruptly nttered to 
express a strong or sudden impulse of feeling. 

Inarticulate cries, groans, shrieks, screams, shouts, 
and yells, and vocal imitations of the sounds made by 
animals and inanimate things, are exclamations. 

Pick out the exclamations in these sentences : 

Ah ! few shall part where many meet. 
Emma. — Ah ! 

He dies — alas ! how soon he dies ! 
Mary. — Alas ! 

O ! what a beautiful morning 1 
Oh ! could I point a place of rest ! 
Lo, what a glorious sight appears ! 
Hail, ye sighing sons of sorrow ! 
Hush ! hark ! what noise is that ? 
He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! 
What ! is the Douglas fallen so low ? 

Adieu, adieu ! my native shore 
Fades o'er the waters blue. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



NOUNS. 



Mr. S. — Tell me the names of what yon see in this 
room. 

Ruth. — Doors, windows, seats, desks, inkstands. 

Mr. S. — What did yon see on yonr way to school ? 

William. — Stones, trees, grass, flowers, bees, birds. 

Mr. S. — Tell me the names of a few things that yon 
can think of bnt cannot see. 

Henry. — Life, death, faith, hope, charity. 

Mr. S. — Such words as these are called nonns. 

A noun is the name of something that we can 
see or think of. 

A nonn will generally make sense with my before it. 
Try a few words and see. 

Tliomas. — My life, my live ; my faith, my faithfully. 
Life and faith are nouns, bnt live and faithfully are 
not nouns. 

Mr. 8. — Select the nouns in these sentences : 

Mary has a book and slate in her hand. 
J. — Mary, book, slate, hand. 

Wheat, rye, oats, and barley, grow in the fields. 
Phebe. — Wheat, rye, oats, barley, fields. 

Honor aud shame from no condition rise. 
Gilbert. — Honor, shame, condition.* 

* After making easy sentences containing the names of persons and things 
that your pupils can see around them, and drilling them in picking out the 
nouns, read the following sentences, and let them select the nouus. If you 
keep their attention fixed on one thing at a time, and advance very gradually 
from the easy to the difficult, you will avoid confusion, and all your exercises 
will be lively, interesting, and instructive. They will soon be able to dis- 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Apples, peaches, pears, and cherries, grow on trees. 
My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and for- 
sake not the law of thy mother. 

Honor and majesty are before him: strength and 
beauty are in his sanctuary. 

Who spread out this soft carpet of green grass be- 
neath our feet ? Who made these fragrant flowers so 
beautiful in form and color ? Who clothed these plants 
and trees with green leaves, and adorned them with 
sweet blossoms ? Who arrayed these fields with wav- 
ing grain to furnish us with bread ? Who made these 
little birds that fill the air with music ? and the cattle 
on a thousand hills ? Who spread the heavens above, 
and made the stars and planets shining there ? Who 
made the sun and moon, and sent them on their jour- 
ney from the chambers of the east, to cheer and gladden 
every living thing with light and heat ? Who, but the 
Lord of life and glory, can produce a butterfly or rose, 
a creeping worm, a blade of grass, or one poor grain of 
corn? 

There various news I heard of love and strife, 

Of peace and war, health, sickness, death and life, 

Of loss and gain, of famine and of store, 

Of storms at sea, of travels on the shore, 

Of prodigies, and portents seen in air, 

Of fires and plagues, and stars with blazing hair, 

Of turns of fortune, changes in the state, 

The fall of favorites, projects of the great, 

Of old mismanagements, taxations new: 

All neither wholly false, nor wholly true. 

tinguish any part of speech as fast as you can read a sentence. Never let 
your exercises drag ; for rapid progress in learning, like a swift conveyance 
in traveling, suits the activity of the human mind. (See my "Inductive and 
Progressive English Grammar," page 33r66.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PRONOUNS. 



Mr. 8. — " As Mary was going to school with Mary's 
slate in Mary's hand, Mary fell down and broke Mary's 
slatei " Is this good language ? 

Francis. — No, sir. The frequent repetition of the 
same noun makes it very disagreeable. It should be, 
"As Mary was going to school, with her slate in her 
hand, she fell down and broke it." 

Mr. 8. — You have made a great improvement in this 
sentence by using she and her for Mary, and it for slate. 
What do we call such little words as she, her, and it 9 

Delia. — We call them pronouns, because they stand 
for nouns. 

Mr. 8. — Pronouns have no meaning of their own; 
they represent the nouns that they stand for. 

A pronoun is a word that represents a noun. 

Select the pronouns in these sentences, and tell me 
what they stand for. 

Emma bought some peaches, and gave them to her 
sister. 

P. — TJiem stands for peaches ; and her, for Emma. 

Boys, have you brought your books ? 

Nancy. — You and your stand for boys. 

Girls, have you brought your books ? 

M. — You and your stand for girls. 

Joseph saw his brethren, and he knew them. 

E. — His and he stand for Joseph; and them, for 
"brethren. 

The man who is the lord of the land spake roughly 
to us, and took us for spies of the country. And we 
said unto him, We are true men. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

R. — Who and him stand for man; and us and we, 
for brethren. 

Joseph said unto his brethren, Come near to me, I 
pray you. And they came near. 

J. — His, me, and I, stand for Joseph; and you and 
they, for brethren. 

And he said, I am Joseph your brother, whom ye 
sold into Egypt, Now therefore be not grieved, nor 
angry with yourselves, that ye sold me hither : for God 
did send me before you to preserve life. 

They went up out of Egypt, and came into the land 
of Canaan unto Jacob their father, and told him, saying, 
Joseph is yet alive, and he is governor over all the land 
of Egypt. And Jacob's heart fainted, for he believed 
them not. 

And they told him all the words of Joseph, which he 
had said unto them: and when he saw the wagons 
which Joseph had sent to carry him, the spirit of Jacob 
their father revived. 

And Israel said, It is enough ; Joseph my son is yet 
alive : I will go and see him before I die. 

When Mary was come where Jesus was, and saw 
him, she fell down at his feet, saying unto him, Lord, 
if thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Mr. S. — Describe what you observed on your way to 
school. 

H. — Bay horses and black horses, large boys and 
small boys, red roses and white roses. 

Mr. S. — Select the nouns, and tell what words are 
added to them. 



ETYMOLOGY. 11 

W. — Horses, boys, and roses are nouns. Bay and 
Mack are added to horses; large and small, to boys; 
and red and white to roses. What do yon call such 
words ? 

Mr. 8. — We call them adjectives, because they are 
added to nouns. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or 
pronoun. 

Adjectives are generally used to express the qualities 
of persons and things and thus describe them. But we 
have some such adjectives as a, an, any, every, some, 
many, one, two, three, four, the, this, and that ; which 
limit the meaning of nouns without expressing any 
quality or describing any person or thing ; as a book, 
an apple, any book, some book, one book, two books, a 
hundred books, the book, this book. 

As qualities belong to persons and things, so adjec- 
tives belong to nouns and pronouns. Select the ad- 
jectives in these sentences, and tell what nouns or 
pronouns they belong to. 

This is a good apple. It is ripe and mellow. 

E. — A and good belong to apple ; and ripe and mel- 
loiv, to it. 

We have warm, pleasant days and cold nights. 

I saw a very pretty bird this morning. It was red, 
green, white, black, and yellow. 

Here are cool, shady groves, green hills, and wide, 
extensive, rich, productive valleys, with splendid houses 
and flower gardens. It is a beautiful and romantic 
country. 

He is kind and generous; and she is modest, plain, 



12 ENGLISH GRAHMAK. 

and unassuming. Though poor and needy, they are 
cheerful and contented. 

Where shall he find, in foreign land, 
So lone a lake, so sweet a strand ? 

Like form in Scotland is not seen, 
Treads not such step on Scottish green. 

Teach me to soothe the helpless orphan's grief, 
With timely aid the widow's woes assuage, 
To misery's moving cries to yield relief, 
And be the sure resource of drooping age. 

The waves on either shore lay there, 
Calm, clear, and azure as the air. 

The passions are a numerous crowd, 
Imperious, positive, and loud. 

Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind, 
Softens the high, and rears the abject mind ; 
Knows, with just reins and gentle hand, to guide 
Between vile shame and arbitrary pride. 

VERBS. 

Mr. 8. — When we are talking about any persons or 
things, they are the subjects of our conversation ; and 
when we are thinking of them, they are the subjects of 
our thoughts. The subject of a thought is what we 
are thinking of, and a thought is what we think of a 
subject. Tell me what you think is done to any per- 
sons or things that you are thinking of, and what you 
think they do. 

O. — Birds are caught, flowers are cultivated, children 
are educated, lions are tamed, and wolves are shot; 
birds sing, flowers bloom, children play, lions roar, and 
wolves howl. 



ETYMOLOGY. 13 

Mr. S. — Such words as are caught, are cultivated, are 
educated, are tamed, and are shot, sing, bloom, play, 
roar, and howl, are called verbs. 

A verb is a part of speech that expresses what 
we think of a subject or predicates something 
of it. 

No sentence can be made without a verb expressed 
or understood; for every sentence must contain a 
thought. 

T. — Can a sentence be made without a noun ? 

Mr. S. — Yes: pronouns can be used as subjects, 
Any word that makes sense with I, thou, he, she, or it, 
we, you, or they, before it as a subject, is a verb. Are 
am, art, is, go, and rains, verbs. Try them and see. 

R. — I am, thou art, he is, we go, it rains. 

Mr. S. — Are see, hear, taste, and siveet, verbs. 

M. — Siveet is not a verb: it doesn't make sense to 
say, I sweet, thou sweet, he sweet, we sweet, you sweet, 
or they sweet, as it does to say, I see, I hear, etc. 

Mr. S. — As I make or read a few sentences, select the 
verbs. I stand here and teach you grammar; I take 
this book and open it; I shut it and lay it on the desk. 

P. — Stand, teach, take, open, shut, lay. 

Birds fly, fish swim, bees hum, and flies buzz. 
F. — Fly, swim, hum, buzz. 

If you listen attentively, you will understand what I 
tell you, and remember what you hear. 

G. — Listen, will understand, tell, remember, hear. 

Fire burns, water boils, and steam rises. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Flowers decay, fade, wither, droop, and die. 

Books are printed, they are bound, they are sold. 

We go to school and learn to read and write. 

We are clothed, we are fed, we are instructed. 

Houses are built, they are bought, they are rented. 

Land is surveyed, it is cleared, it is plowed. 

Horses are harnessed, they are driven, they are 
abused ; they walk, they trot, they run. 

"Surely," said he to himself, "this palace is the seat 
of happiness ; where pleasure succeeds to pleasure, and 
discontent and sorrow can have no admission. What- 
ever nature has provided for the delight of sense is here 
spread forth to be enjoyed. What can mortals hope or 
imagine which the master of this palace has not ob- 
tained? The dishes of luxury cover his table; the 
voice of harmony lulls him in his bowers ; he breathes 
the fragrance of the groves of Java, and sleeps upon the 
down of the cygnets of the Ganges. He speaks, and his 
mandate is obeyed ; he wishes, and his wish is gratified : 
all whom he sees obey him, and all whom he hears 
natter him." 

Great Nature spoke ; observant men obeyed ; 

Cities were built ; societies were made ; 

Here rose one little state ; another near 

Grew by like means, and joined through love or fear. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Mr. S. — Select the words that express relation in the 
sentences that I make. 

I hold my hand over the desk, under the desk, before 
the desk, behind the desk, against the desk. 

The sun shines through the window on the floor. 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

B.— Over, under, before, behind, against, through, on. 
Mr. S. — Such words as these we call prepositions. 

A preposition is a word placed before another 
to express relation. 

Select the prepositions that I use, and tell me what 
relations they express. 

The fence around the school-house is in good order. 

P. — Around expresses the relation of fence to school- 
house ; and in, the relation of is, to order. 

Mr. S. — School-house, the object of around, is called 
the subsequent term of relation, because it comes after 
the preposition ; and fence is called the antecedent term, 
because it goes before the preposition. Order, the ob- 
ject of in, is the subsequent term of relation ; and is, 
the antecedent term. 

The book on the desk between my slate and arith- 
metic cost me two dollars. 

H. — On expresses the relation between book and desk ; 
and between expresses the relation between look and 
slate and arithmetic. 

R. — Is it not better to say, "On expresses the rela- 
tion of book to desk, and between expresses the relation 
of book to slate and arithmetic '■?" 

Mr. S. — I think it is. But on this point good gram- 
marians disagree. "We have authority for both expres- 
sions. Use whichever you prefer after mature delibera- 
tion. But, as uniformity is very important, let us all 
agree where we can, and differ only where we must ; 
and then we shall not be confused and our progress 
impeded by conflicting views and expressions. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Without thee, I am poor ; and with thee, rich. 
J. — Without expresses the relation of poor to thee; 
and with, the relation of rich to thee. 

I look through the window across the street. 

M. — TJirough expresses the relation between look and 
window; and across, the relation between look and 
street. 

Here is a list of prepositions, arranged in alphabetical 
order to assist you in committing them to memory. 

About, above, across, after, against, along, amid, 
amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, 
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, be- 
twixt, beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from, 
in, into, like, near, notwithstanding, of, off, on, oyer, 
overthwart, past, round, since, through, throughout, 
till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, 
up, upon, with, within, without, worth. 

Most of these words are generally prepositions ; but 
some of them are often used as other parts of speech. 
So you must not depend entirely on this list, but take 
particular notice how these words are used in sentences. 

ADVERBS. 

Mr. S. — As I make two or three sentences, see if any 
word is added to a verb, an adjective, or a preposition. 

I walk slowly. I am a very slow walker. I hold this 
book exactly over my left hand. 

G. — Slowly is added to walk; very, to sloiv; and ex- 
actly, to over. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 

Mr. 8. — Such words as slowly, very, and exactly are 
called adverbs. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, an ad- 
jective, a preposition, or another adverb. 

Select the adverbs that I use, and tell me to what 
they are added. 

If you read too fast, you will never be good readers. 

N. — Too is added to fast ; fast, to read; and never, 
to ivill be. 

The nadir is the point directly under our feet. 

R. — Directly is added to the preposition under. 

They speak fluently and write correctly. 

Peter went out and wept bitterly. 

It is intensely cold, and the wind blows very hard. 

How often have we resolved to live virtuously ! 

He walked swiftly forward over the valleys, and saw 
the hills gradually rising before him. 

You stayed away so long that I thought you would 
never come home again. 

He cometh forth like a flower, and is cut down. 

He shall return no more to his house, neither shall 
his place know him any more. 

Time once past, never returns: the moment that is 
lost, is lost forever. 

Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 
Is but the more a fool, the more a knave. 

J/7. 8. — By using an adverb, we can generally ex- 
press with one word what would otherwise require two 
or more words; as, How [in what manner] did he 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

speak ? He spoke eloquently [in an eloquent manner]. 
When [at what time] did } T ou see her ? WJiere [in what 
place] was she ? They were very [in a high degree] 
angry. Why [for what reason] were they so [in such a 
degree] angry ? 

J. — We are told that adverbs derive their name from 
the Latin word adverbium. Were they called adverbs, 
because they are equivalent in sense to two or more 
words added together ? 

Mr. S. — That is the opinion of some excellent gram- 
marians ; but others say they were called adverbs, be- 
cause they are generally added to verbs. 

Instead of saying, one time, two times, or three times, 
we can use a single word and say, once, twice, or thrice. 
But, as we have no single words to go any further, we 
. must say, four times, five times, six times, seven times, 
a hundred times, a thousand times, ten thousand times, 
etc. Such expressions are generally called adverbial 
phrases, and so are, at all, at last, at least, at most, at 
once, at present, in fine, in general, in short, in vain, on 
high, from afar, from above, from on high, by and by, 
now and then, etc. Many of our adverbs are equivalent 
in sense to prepositions and their objects with the ad- 
jectives belonging to them ; as, They fly swiftly [in a 
swift manner]. 

A preposition and its object are, by some gramma- 
rians, regarded as an adjunct to the antecedent term of 
relation, equivalent in sense to an adjective, an adverb, 
or a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, T am a 
citizen of Borne, I am a Roman citizen. Write with 
care, write carefully. He was the son of David, he was 
David's son. It will be the ruin of you, it will be your 
ruin. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

An adjunct is a word or phrase added to a 
verlb or noun, an adjective or adverb. 

As this word signifies something added to another, in 
its widest sense, it includes adjectives and adverbs, as 
well as phrases, and also nouns and pronouns in the 
possessive case. But it is generally used in a limited 
sense by grammarians, and applied to phrases, because 
we have special names for other adjuncts : we call them 
adjectives and adverbs and possessives. 

CONNECTIVES. 

Mr. S. — Select the words that connect the different 
parts of the sentence that I make, and tell me what 
they connect. 

James and Henry learn, because they study. 

P. — A lid connects Henry to James; and because 
connects "they study" to "James and Henry learn." 

J. — Such words should be called connectives or con- 
junctives, because they are the connecters of different 
parts of a sentence, and not their connections or con- 
junctions. 

A connective is a word that connects words or 
phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs. 

Without connectives, we should be obliged to speak 
in separate sentences, and not be able to express a 
regular train of reasoning. They are the joints and 
hinges of discourse that hold together different words 
and sentences. How beautifully the thoughts expr> 
in argumentative discourses hang and turn upon cacli 
other, held together by connectives ! 



20 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

Mr. S. — Now select the connectives in the sentences 
that I use and tell me what they connect. 

He is poor ; but he is honest and industrious. 

R. — But connects "he is honest and industrious" to 
" he is poor." And connects industrious to honest. 

Fear not; for I am with thee. 

E. — For connects " I am with thee " to " fear not." . 

If they will not work, they shall not eat. 

H. — If connects " they will not work " to " they shall 
not eat." 

Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

W. — Except connects "ye repent" to "ye shall all 
likewise perish." * 

Here is a list of almost all the connectives that we 
have in common use : ■ 

After, and, as, because, before, but, either, except, for, 
how, however, if, lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, or, 
otherwise, since, so, than, then, therefore, though, till, 
until, unless, when, where, whether, while, yet. 

Some of the words in this list are often used as other 
parts of speech. We have but few words that are 
always in the same part of speech. The same word is 
sometimes used in several parts of speech. As I give 
you a few examples, take particular notice of the dif- 
ferent uses of the same word. 

The cuckoo sings, cuclcoo, cuclcoo ! "We iron our car- 
riages with the best kind of iron, and put in iron 
axletrees. Our best silver watches are as good as gold 

* See my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," pages 63-66. 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

watches: the cases only are made of silver and gold. 
If you kick your horse, he may give you a kick. When 
we ride in the cars we have a pleasant ride. When I 
look at a thief I know him by his looks. I pocket my 
watch and watch my pocket. I could have #e//er spared 
a footer man. This round stick is the round of a chair. 
The turner rounded it. If you tie a string round it, 
you can turn it round very swiftly. He fell doivn in 
the street, as he was walking doivn Broadway. I was 
on the doivn train of cars. Is the couch of royalty a 
bed of down ? We will down our tyrants. Down, vil- 
lains, doivn.* 



CONVERSATION II. 

CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

Mr. S. — Tell me the names of the boys and girls in 
this class. 

i?.— Francis Martin, Gilbert Brown, Henry Perry, 
James Kelly, Thomas Dean, William Jones, Emma 
White, Mary Bloomfield, Delia Bliss, Nancy Burns, 
Phebe Smith, and Euth Adams. 

Mr. S. — These are proper names, and hoy and girl 
are common names. If I say boy or girl, how can 
you tell which boy or girl I mean? We use proper 

* Make your pupils tell in what part of speech each of these words in 
Italics is used; and if yon find lliis exercise instructive and agreeable, use 
other words iu different parts of speech, aud drill thcui thoroughly iu such 
exercises. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

names to distinguish individual persons, places, or 
things, from others that have the same common name. 
Grammarians call proper names proper nouns, and 
common names common nouns. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual. 
A common noun is the name of a species or class. 

All the proper names of men, women, and children, 
that you are acquainted with, or read of, and all the 
proper names of countries, states, counties, towns, 
cities, villages, rivers, lakes, seas, or islands, that you 
can find in your geography or atlas, are proper nouns ; 
and all the common names that are defined in your 
dictionary are common nouns. 

M. — Have we any other kind of nouns ? 

Mr, S. — We have collective, abstract, and verbal 
nouns. But they are generally considered species of 
common nouns. To these may be added sentential 
nouns, commonly called substantive phrases or clauses. 

A collective noun is the name of an assemblage of 
persons or things. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality separately 
considered. 

A verbal noun is an infinitive or participle that per- 
forms the office of a noun. 

A sentential noun is a phrase or clause performing 
the office of a noun. 

Distinguish the collective, abstract, verbal, and sen- 
tential nouns in the sentences that I use : 

The people rule this nation without standing armies. 
What causes the smoothness and transparency of ice, 
and the whiteness and coldness of snow ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

H. — People, nation, and armies, are collective nouns ; 
and smoothness, transparency, whiteness, and coldness, 
are abstract nouns. 

To enjoy is to obey. What meaneth this bleating of 
the sheep ? He was punished for tearing his book. 
Whether they are guilty or not guilty must be decided 
by the jury. 

J. — To enjoy, to obey, and Heating, are verbal nouns ; 
tearing his hook, and whether they are guilty or not 
guilty, are sentential nouns. 

R. — How many kinds of pronouns have we? 

Mr. 8. — We have six kinds of pronouns; personal, 
connective, interrogative, distributive, demonstrative, 
and indefinite. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form 
designates its person. 

A connective pronoun is a pronoun that con- 
nects different parts of a sentence. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is 
used to ask a question. 

A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that rep- 
resents each individual of a number taken sepa- 
rately. 

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that 
precisely points out what it represents. 

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun used in- 
definitely. 

The simple personal pronouns are, /, iliou, lie, she, 
and it, we, ye, you, and they. 

The compound personal pronouns are, myself, thyself, 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

himself, herself, itself ourselves, yourselves, and them- 
selves. 

The connective pronouns are, ivlw, which, that, what, 
as, whoever, whoso, ivhosoever, whatever, whatsoever, 
whichever, and ivhichsoever. 

The distributive pronouns are, each, either, and 
neither. 

Tliis, that, these, those, loth, same, such, former, and 
latter, are often used as demonstrative pronouns. 

The words most commonly used as indefinite pro- 
nouns are, some, other, another, any, one, none, all, 
many, few, and several.* 

. Nouns and pronouns have four kinds of variations ; 
gender, number, person, and case. 

GENDER. 

Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns 
in regard to sex. 

We generally say there are three genders ; the 
masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex. 

The feminine gender denotes the female sex. 

The neuter gender denotes neither sex. 

As there are but two sexes, and the Latin word 
neuter signifies neither, strictly speaking, there are but 
two genders. If we substitute the English word for 
the Latin, and say neither gender instead of neuter gen- 
der, we shall not be misled by using a negative term in 
a positive sense. 

Boy is in the masculine gender; girl is in the fern- 

* See my "Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," pages 80-85. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

inine; booh is in the neater gender, strictly speaking, 
in neither gender; and child is in either gender. 

He is in the masculine gender; she, in the feminine; 
it, in neither gender ; and 7, thou, ive, you, and they, in 
either gender. 

NUMBER. 

Number is a distinction of nouns and pro- 
nouns in regard to unity and plurality. 

There are two numbers ; the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number denotes but one. 

The plural number denotes more than one. 

The plnral number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s or es to the singular; as, chair, chairs; house, 
houses ; bench, benches ; glass, glasses ; fox, foxes, 

Nouns that form the plural number otherwise are 
said to be irregular, because they deviate from the usual 
method. Give me some examples. 

K — Man, men ; womaD, women ; child, children ; 
ox, oxen ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; louse, 
lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice ; penny, pence. 

PERSON. 

Person is a distinction of nouns and pronouns 
in regard to the speaker, the person spoken to, 
and the person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons ; the first, the second, 
and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 
2 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The second person denotes the person spoken 
to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The pronouns / and we are always in the first person ; 
thou, ye, and you, in the second; and he, she, it, and 
they, in the third. Nouns are never in the first person. 
They are sometimes in the second person, but generally 
in the third. 

CASE. 

Case is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in 
regard to the construction of sentences. 

Our nouns and pronouns have three cases ; the 
nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

The nominative case simply denotes the name 
of a person or thing, or the subject of a thought. 

The possessive case denotes possession or own- 
ership. 

The objective case denotes the object of a 
thought or of a relation. 

In every sentence the verb is the key to its construc- 
tion. Find the verb, and you can easily ascertain the 
cases. Inquire with ivho or what before it, and the 
answer will be in the nominative case. Inquire with 
whom or what after it or after a preposition, and the 
answer will be in the objective case. Inquire with 
whose before a noun, and you will find the possessive 
case. Try this sentence: " John broke Ruth's slate." 

P.— Here broke is the verb. Who broke ? John. 
Then John is in the nominative case, the subject of 



ETYMOLOGY. 



27 



twice. John broke what ? Slate. Then slate is in the 
objective case, the object of brolce. Whose slate? 
Kuth's. Then Ruth's is in the possessive case, denot- 
ing the possession of slate. 

DECLENSION. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is a regu- 
lar presentation of its variations in number and 
case. 



The personal pronouns are thus declined. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



First person either 
gender. 



Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Second person either j p 

s ender - i obt 

Nom. 

Poss. 
Obj. 



Third person mas- 
culine gender. 

Third person femi- 
nine gender. 

Third person neither J 
gender. | 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 

Obj. 



I, 

My, 
Me; 

Thou, 

Thy, 
Thee; 

He, 
His, 

Him; 

She, 
Her, 
Her; 

It, 
Its, 
It: 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
7 oj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



We, 

Our, 

Us. 

Ye or you, 

Your, 

You. 

They, 
Their, 
Them. 

They, 
Their, 
Them. 

They, 

Their, ' 
Them. 



When you have committed this declension to memory 
you will know the number, person, and case of even- 
personal pronoun by its form, and also the gender of 
the third person singular. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J. — There are three exceptions, Mr. Smith : her has 
the same form in the possessive and the objective 
case; and you and it, the same in the nominative and 
objective. 

Mr. S. — Decline who and which. 

P. — They have the same form in both numbers. 

Norn. Who, Norn. Which, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. 

Wlwever and ivhosoever are declined like who. 
R. — How many kinds of adjectives are there ? 
Mr. S. — To avoid perplexity, we will divide them 
into three classes ; proper, common, and compound. 

A proper adjective is one that is derived from 
a proper noun. 

A common adjective is a simple adjective not 
derived from a proper noun, with a common sig- 
nification established by general use. 

A compound adjective is one that is composed 
of two or more words united by a hyphen. 

Tell me the adjectives that are derived from these 
proper nouns: England, Ireland, France, America, 
Germany, China, Greece, Borne, Plato, Cicero. 

M. — English, Irish, French, American, German, Chi- 
nese, Greek or Grecian, Roman, Platonic, Ciceronean. 

Mr. 8. — These are proper adjectives. Every adjective 
that is not derived from a proper noun is a common 
adjective, unless it consists of two or more words united. 

D. — How many sorts of adverbs have we ? 

Mr. S. — Adverbs may be properly divided into eight 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

classes : adverbs of manner ; as, politely, bravely, well, 
ill, thus : of time ; as, noiv, lately, yesterday, hereafter, 
yearly, often, again, once, twice, seldom, ever, never, 
soon, early, then, when : of place ; as, here, there, where, 
hither, thither, ivhither, hence, thence, whence, above, be- 
low, up, dozen, backward, forward : of degree ; as, much, 
little, very, entirely, partly, almost, enough, abundantly, 
infinitely: of affirmation; as, yes, yea, certainly, truly: 
of negation; as, nay, no, not: of donbt; as, perhaps, 
perchance, possibly, per adventure : and causal adverbs; 
as, consequently, therefore, why, ivherefore. 

I have given you a few examples in each of these 
classes to help you classify all the rest of our adverbs. 

COMPARISON. 

Comparison is a variation of an adjective or 
adverb to express its signification in different 
degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison; the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree simply expresses a quality 
or attribute; the comparative expresses it in a 
higher or lower degree ; and the superlative ex- 
presses it in the highest or lowest degree. 

Adjectives and adverbs are regularly compared by 
adding r or er, and st or est, to the positive: as, white, 
wit iter, whitest; hind, kinder, kindest; early, earlier, 
earliest ; often, oftener, oftenest ; soon, sooner, soonest. 

"When this would make the pronunciation disi 
able to the ear, we use more and most before the adjec- 
tive or adverb; varying it in sense, but not in form: 



30 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

as, eloquent, more eloquent, most eloquent; eloquently, 
more eloquently, most eloquently. To express diminu- 
tion, we use less and least; as, less eloquent, least elo- 
quent. 

We have some words in common use that are irreg- 
ularly compared. Give me a few examples. 

G. — Good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; well, bet- 
ter, best; ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; many, 
more, most ; much, more, most ; far, farther or further, 
farthest or furthest; up, upper, uppermost or upmost. 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Mr. 8. — Distinguish the different kinds of nouns 
and pronouns in these sentences, and tell which gen- 
der each of them is in. 

Emma has received a letter from her friend. 

James caught some pigeons in his father's net. 

Elimelech, Naomi's husband, died ; and she was left 
with her two sons. 

They hanged Ham an on the gallows that he had 
prepared for Mordecai. 

J. — Emma is a proper noun, in the feminine gender ; letter is 
a common noun, in neither gender ; her is a personal pronoun 
standing for Emma, in the feminine gender ; and friend is a com- 
mon noun in either gender.* 

G. — Why do you say that letter is in neither gender 
instead of the neuter gender, and that friend is in 
either gender ? 

J. — Because I prefer a plain English word to the 
Latin word neuter, which signifies neither, and should 

* Proceed in the eame manner with the nouns and pronouns in the rest of 
these sentences. 



exeecise i;n" parsing. 31 

not be used in a positive sense. We might as well say 
the neither gender as the neuter gender. Either cor- 
responds with neither, which signifies not either. It is 
uncertain whether her friend is a male or female ; for 
the gender of friend is not determined by the context. 
But it must be either masculine or feminine. For the 
sake of brevity, I say that it is in either gender, instead 
of saying that it is in the masculine or feminine gender. 
H. — In what gender are the nouns in this sentence ? 

" The child's parents were in the house." 

J. — Child's is in either gender, because it denotes 
either sex; parents is in both genders, because it de- 
notes both sexes, father and mother; and house is in 
neither gender, because it denotes neither sex : house 
is neither male nor female. 

Mr. S. — If any of you disagree with James, raise your 
hands. As all of you agree, I hope we shall have no 
discord in parsing nouns and pronouns. 

Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and pro- 
nouns in these sentences, and tell me which gender 
and number each of them is in : 

Whose book is this ? These are the books which 
Gilbert's cousin gave him. 

Each of the girls reads very well. Some of them are 
better readers than any of the boys. 

Hiram, king of Tyre, sent messengers to David. 

Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 

The 3'oung men saw me, and hid themselves. 

Love your enemies, bless them that curse you. 

No mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for 
the price of wisdom is above rubies. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With all thy soul love God above, 
And as thyself thy neighbor love. 

R. — Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender and 
the singular number; book is a common noun, in neither gender 
and the singular number ; this is a demonstrative pronoun stand- 
ing for book, in neither gender and the singular number. 

M. — These is a demonstrative pronoun standing for books, in 
neither gender and the plural number; books is a common noun, 
in neither gender and the plural number ; ichich is a connective 
pronoun standing for books, and connecting " Gilbert's cousin 
gave him " to " these are the books," in neither gender and the 
plural number; Gilbert's is a proper noun, in the masuline gen- 
der and singular number; cousin is a common noun, in either 
gender and the singular number; and him is a personal pro- 
noun standing for Gilbert, in the masculine gender and singular 
number. 

H. — Each is a distributive pronoun, in the feminine gender 
and singular number ; and girls is a common noun, in the fem- 
inine gender and plural number. Some is an indefinite pronoun, 
in the feminine gender aud plural number; them is a personal 
pronoun standing for girls, in the feminine gender and plural 
number ; readers is a common noun, in the feminine gender and 
plural number ; any is an indefinite pronoun, in the masculine 
gender and plural number ; and boys is a common noun, in the 
masculine gender and plural number. 

W. — Is not readers in either gender ? 

Mr. S.— Readers is here applied to the girls; and 
therefore its gender is determined by the context. If 
we should say, " The boys are better readers than the 
girls," it would be in the masculine gender. But when 
its gender is not determined by the context, it is in 
either gender; as, "We have a few good readers iu our 
school;" because it is uncertain whether the good 
readers are males or females* 

Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and pro- 



EXEKCISE IK PARSING. 33 

nouns in these sentences, and tell which gender, num- 
ber, and person each of them is in. 

Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for me ; but weep 
for yourselves, and for your children. 

Many of the saints did I shut up in prison. 

Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me ? 

I said, Who art thou, Lord? And he said, I am 
Jesus, whom thou persecutest. 

The Jews answered him, saying, For a good work we 
stone thee not. 

Is not this he that sat and begged? Some said, 
This is he: others said, He is like him. But he said, 
I am he. 

King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets ? I know 
that thou believest. 

Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou per- 
suadest me to be a Christian. 

P. — Daughters is a common noun, in the feminine gender, 
plural number, and second person ; Jerusalem is a proper noun, in 
neither gender, singular number, and third person ; me is a per- 
sonal pronoun standing for Jesus, in the masculine gender, singu- 
lar number, and first person ; yourselves is a compound personal 
pronoun standing for daughters, in the feminine gender, plural 
number, and second person ; your is a personal pronoun standing 
for daughters, in the feminine gender, plural number, and second 
person ; and children is a common noun, in either gender, plural 
number, and third person. 

U. — Why is me in the first person? 

P. — Because it denotes the speaker. 

H. — "Why is daughters in the second person ? 

P. — Because it denotes the persons spoken to. 

H. — Why is children in the third person ? 

P. — Because it denotes the persons spoken of. 



34 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Mr. 8. — Do any of you remember what I said you 
must do to find out all the cases of the nouns and pro- 
nouns in a sentence ? 

R. — I remember very well. You told us to find the 
verbs and prepositions; then to ask a question with 
who or what before a verb to find the nominative case, 
and with whom or what after a verb or preposition to 
find the objective, and with whose before a noun to find 
the possessive. 

Mr. 8. — Tell me the cases of the nouns and pronouns 
in these sentences. 

Henry lent his books to "William. 

K — Here lent is a verb, and to is a preposition. Who 
lent ? Henry. Then Henry is in the nominative case, 
the subject of lent. Henry lent what ? Books. Whose 
books ? His books. Then looks is in the objective 
case, the object of lent; and his is in the possessive 
case, denoting the possession or ownership of books. 
To whom ? William. Then William is in the objec- 
tive case, the object of to. 

Mr. 8. — To ascertain the cases ask and answer all 
these questions mentally ; then tell the subject of each 
verb, its object (if it has one), and the object of every 
preposition in the sentence, and which nouns or pro- 
nouns are in the possessive case.* 

Francis borrowed Gilbert's knife and lost it. 

D— Francis is the subject of borrowed and knife is the object ; 
Gilbert's is in the possessive case, and it is the object of lost. 

♦Before your pupils undertake to parse a sentence, make them tell the 
subject of every finite verb that it contains, aud every object of a verb or 
preposition, and every possessive. This will show them how the sentence is 
constructed, and illustrate all the cases. 



EXEECISE IN PAKSIXG. OO 

I bought a gold watch for my sister, which cost me 
two hundred dollars. 

M. — / is the subject of bought, and watch is the object; my is 
in the possessive case, and sister is the object of for ; which is the 
subject of cost; me is the indirect object, and dollars is the direct 
object of cost. 

No grateful dews descend from evening skies, 
Nor morning odors from the flowers arise ; 
No rich perfumes refresh the fruitful field, 
Nor fragrant herbs their native incense yield. 

JR. — Dews is the subject of descend, and skies is the object of 
from; odors is the subject of arise, and flowers is the object of 
from ; perfumes is the subject of refresh, and field is the object ; 
herbs is the subject of yield, and incense is the object, and their is 



If you keep your shop, it will keep you. 

He watches the crow, and the crow watches him. 

She despises her neighbors, and they despise her. 

We have learned our lesson, and you must learn 
yours. 

Do you remember what I told you ? 

We sailed across the Atlantic ocean in ten days. 

Overcome bad habits, or they will overcome you. 

Nancy lost William's knife and broke hers. 

Eespect yourselves, if you desire the respect of others. 

Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive them that 
trespass against us. 

But see, Orion sheds unwholesome dews ; 
Arise ! the pines a noxious shade diffuse ; 
Sharp Boreas blows, and nature feels decay ; 
Time conquers all, and we must time obey. 

Mr* 8. — You seem to understand the construction of 
these sentences very well. You can tell the subjects of 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the verbs and the objects of the verbs and prepositions, 
and which words are in the possessive case. Now re- 
member that the subjects are in the nominative case, 
and that every object of a verb or preposition is in the 
objective case. For the sake of brevity, we sometimes 
call nouns and pronouns in the different cases nomina- 
tives, possessives, and objectives. 

Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and pro- 
nouns in these sentences, and tell which gender, num- 
ber, person, and case, each of them is in : 

God made the country, and men made the city. 

H. — God is the subject of made, and country is the object ; men 
is the subject of made, and city is the object. 

God is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. 

Country is a common noun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case. 

Men is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. 

City is a common noun, in neither gender, singidar number, 
third person, and objective case. 

If we slight our neighbors, they will slight us. 

P. — We is the subject of slight, and neighbors is the object; 
our is in the possessive case ; they is the subject of will slight, 
and us is the object. 

We is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
first person, and nominative case. 

Our is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
first person, and possessive case. 

Neighbors is a common noun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case. 

They is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case. 



EXERCISE IK PARSIKG. 37 

Us is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural n amber, 
first person, and objective case. 

Nom. we, Poss. our, Obj. us, Nom. they, Poss. their, 
Obj. them. 

Mr. S. — You have parsed these nouns and pronouns 
etymologically. You may now apply the rules of syn- 
tax, and parse syntactically. 

They saw the young child with Mary his mother. 

J. — They is the subject of saw, and child is the object ; Mary is 
the object of with, mother is in apposition with Mary, and his is 
in the possessive case. 

They is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and 
plural number ; agreeing with its antecedent men, according to 
Rule VI. : in the third person and nominative case ; the subject 
of the verb saw, according to Rule I.* 

Child is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case; the object of saw. — 
Rule II. 

Mary is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person; and objective case ; the object of the preposi- 
tion with. — Rule II. 

His is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and sin- 
gular number; agreeing with its antecedent child — Rule VI. : in 
the third person and possessive case ; denoting the possession of 
mother. — Rule III. 

Mother is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; in apposition with 
Mary. — Rule IV. 

Paul, thou art beside thyself. 

R.—Tlwu is the subject of art, and thyself is the object of 
side. 
Paul is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 

* Make your pupils learn and repeat every rule that they apply. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. - 

ber, second person, and nominative case independent ; its case 
depends on no other word. — Rule V. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and sin- 
gular number ; agreeing with its antecedent Paul — Rule VI. ; in 
the second person and nominative case ; the subject of art. — 
Rule I. 

Thyself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine 
gender and singular number ; agreeing with Paul — Rule VI. ; in 
the second person and objective case; the object of beside. — 
Rule II. 

Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

W. — Read is the subject of lies, that is the subject of wears, 
and crown is the object. 

Head is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case; the subject of lies. — Rule I. 

That is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, and third person ; agreeing with its antecedent head — Note 
8 to Rule VI. ; and in the nominative case ; the subject of wears. 
—Rule I. 

Crown is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of wears. — Rule II. 

Jesus saith unto her, I am the resurrection and the 
life. 

F. — Jesus is the subject of said, and her is the object of unto ; 
I is the subject of am, and resurrection and life are in predication 
with I. 

Jesus is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of said. — 
Rule I. 

Her is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Martha — Rule VI. ; in the 
third person and objective case ; the object of unto. — Rule II. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus — Rule VI. ; in the 
first person and nominative case; the subject of am. — Rule I. 



EXEIiCISE IN PARSING. 39 

Besurrection and life are common nouns, in neither gender, 
singular number, third person, and nominative case ; in predica- 
tion with I. — Rule IV.* 

Peter said, Man, I know not what thou sayest. 

M. — Peter is the subject of said; the case of man depends on 
no other word ; I is the subject of know, and what is the object ; 
thou is the subject of sayest, and what is the object. 

Peter is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of said. — 
Rule I. 

Man is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and nominative case independent. — 
RuleV. 

i" is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with its antecedent Peter — Rule VI. ; in the 
first person, and nominative case; the subject of know. — Rule I. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case twofold; the object of 
know, and also the object of sayest. — Rule II. 

Some spend what others earn. 

P. — This is equivalent in sense to " Some spend that which 
others earn;" and as that is the object of spend, and which is the 
object of earn, so what is the object of spend and also the object 
of earn : it performs the office of that and lohich, and has a two- 
fold case. 

Some is the subject of spend, and zchat is the object ; others is 
the subject of earn, and what is the object. 

What is earned by some is spent by others. 
That which is earned by some is spent by others. 

J. — As that is the subject of is spent, and which is the subject 
of is earned, so what, their equivalent, is the subject of is earned, 
and also the subject of is spent. 

* See my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," page 241. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is a connective prononn, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case twofold; the subject 
of is earned and also the subject of is spent. — Rule I. 

Some and others are indefinite pronouns, in either gender, 
plural number, third person, and objective case, the objects of 
by.— Rule II. 

Buy what is needed. Buy that which is needed. 

D. — As that is the object of buy, and which is the subject of is 
needed, so what, their equivalent, is the object of buy and also the 
subject of is needed. It is therefore in the objective case and also 
in the nominative. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case, and also in the nomina- 
tive case ; the object of buy and the subject of is needed. — Rules 
I and II. 

Whoever sins must repent. 

Every person that sins must repent. 

As person is the subject of must repent, and that is the subject 
of sins, so ichoever, their equivalent, is the subject of sins and 
also the subject of must repent. 

Whoever is a connective pronoun, in either gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case twofold ; the subject 
of sins and also the subject of must repent. — Rule I. 

Whose children are these ? 

E. — Whose is in the possessive case ; these is the subject of are, 
and children is in predication with these. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender and plural 
number, third person, and possessive case, denoting the possession 
of children. — Rule III. 

Children is a common noun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; in predication with these. — 
Rule IV. 

These is a demonstrative pronoun, in either gender, plural 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are. — 
Rule L 



EXERCISE IN" PARSING. 41 

As soon then as he had said unto them, I am he, they 
went backward, and fell to the ground. Then asked 
he them again, Whom seek ye ? And they said, Jesus 
of Nazareth. Jesus answered, I have told you that I 
am he : if therefore ye seek me, let these go their way. 

The bird that soars on highest wing, 

Builds on the ground her lowly nest ; 
And she that doth most sweetly sing, 
Sings in the shade when all things rest : 
In lark and nightingale we see 
What honor hath humility.* 

Mr. 8. — Parse the adjective and adverbs in these 
sentences. 

We have a better country and milder climate. 

W. — A is a common adjective; belonging to country. — Rule 
VII. 

Better is a common adjective, in the comparative degree ; be- 
longing to country. — Rule VII. 

Milder is a common adjective, in the comparative degree; be- 
longing to climate. — Rule VII. 

Mr. 8. — Compare these adjectives. 
W. — Pos. good, Com. better, Super, best; Pos. mild, 
Com. milder, Super, mildest. A cannot be compared. 

The sweetest flowers soon lose their fragrance. 

P. — TJie is a common adjective ; belonging to flowers. — Rule 
VII. 

Sweetest is a common adjective, in the superlative degree ; be- 
longing to flowers. — Rule VII. Pos. sweet, Com. sweeter, Super, 
sweetest. 

Soon is an adverb of time, in the positive degree : relating to 
lose. — Rule XII. Pos. soon, Com. sooner, Super, soonest. 

* Let your pupils parse the nouns and pronouns in these sentences. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These little birds sing very sweetly. 

E. — These is a common adjective; belonging to birds. — Rule 
VII. 

Little is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging 
to birds. — Rule VII. Pos. little, Com. less, Super, least. 

Very is an adverb of degree ; relating to sweetly. — Rule XII. 
I is an adverb of manner ; relating to sing. — Rule XII. 



Mr. S. — Parse the prepositions and connectives in 
these sentences : 

The laws of this country are made by the people. 

H. — Of is a preposition ; expressing the relation of its ante- 
cedent term laws to its object country. — Rule XI. 

By is a preposition ; expressing the relation of its antecedent 
term are made to its object people. — Rule XL 

It is good for us to be afflicted. 

M. — For is a preposition ; expressing the relation of its ante- 
cedent term good to its object us. — Rule XI. 

The boys and girls in this class learn very fast, be- 
cause they attend to their studies. 

R. — In is a preposition ; expressing the relation of its antece- 
dent terms boys and girls to its object class. — Rule XI. 

To is a preposition ; expressing the relation of its antecedent 
term attend to its object studies. — Rule XI. 

And is a connective ; connecting girls to boys. — Rule XIII. 

Because is a connective ; connecting " they attend to their 
studies" to "the boys and girls in this class learn very fast." — 
Rule XIII. 

Mr. 8. — You may now parse all the words in these 
sentences except the verbs : 

Cicero, the orator, was a Eoman citizen. 



EXERCISE IK PAESIKG. 43 

J. — Cicero is the subject of was ; orator is in apposition with 
Cicero, and citizen is in predication with Cicero. 

Cicero is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of was. 
—Rule I. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to orator. — Rule VII. 

Orator is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in apposition with 
Cicero. — Rule IV. 

A is a common adjective, and Roman is a proper adjective ; be- 
longing to citizen. — Rule VII. 

Citizen is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with 
Cicero. — Rule IV. 

Art thou the Thracian robber ? 

N. — Thou is the subject of art, and robber is in predication with 
thou. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and nominative case ; the subject of art. 
—Rule I. 

The is a common adjective, and Tliracian is a proper adjective ; 
belonging to Bobber. — Rule VII. 

Bobber is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with 
thou.— Rule IV. 

I am called a robber. What is a conqueror ? 

B.—I is the subject of am called, and robber is in predication 
with I. Conqueror is the subject of is, and what is in predication 
with conqueror. 

I is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, first person, and nominative case ; the subject of am calU d. 
—Rule I. 

A is a common adjective ; belonging to robber. — Rule VII. 

Robber is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with 
I— Rule IV. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is an interrogative pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with 
conqueror. — Rule IV. 

A is a common adjective ; belonging to conqueror. — Rule VIL 
Conqueror is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singu- 
lar number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is. 
—Rule I. 

I do not care who knows it. 

H. — I is the subject of do care ; who is the subject of knows, 
and it is the object. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and nominative case ; the subject of do care. — Rule I. 

Not is an adverb of negation ; relating to do care. — Rule XII. 

Who is a connective pronoun, in either gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of knows. — 
Rulel. 

It is a personal pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of knows. — Rule II. 

vain and inconstant world! 

O. — is an exclamation. 

Vain and inconstant are common adjectives, in the positive 
degree ; belonging to world. — Rule VII. 

And is a connective; connecting inconstant to vain. — Rule 
XIII. 

World is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
second person, and nominative case independent. — Rule V. 

E. — Did lie parse correctly? We have been 
taught to say, " Exclamations have no dependent con- 
struction." 

Mr. S. — I think he did. A negative rule in parsing 
is unnecessary ; for it is the end and aim of parsing to 
tell what every word in each sentence is, and what con- 
struction it has, and not what it has not. An excla- 
mation sometimes seems to he the antecedent term of 



EXERCISE IK PASSING. 45 

relation before a preposition ; as, " Hurrah for Young 
America!" "Hail to the chief who in triumph ad- 
vances ! " " for a closer walk with God ! " and ah 
are often used before nouns and pronouns to make them 
emphatic and exclamatory ; as, " Sing, heavens ! and 
be joyful, earth !" "0 thou whom we adore!" "Ah 
me!" "Ah thou that destroyest the temple!" "Ah 
Lord God!" It appears, then, that there are a few 
exclamations which are sometimes so closely united to 
other words as to have a dependent construction. This 
is another good reason for not applying that rule when 
we parse exclamations. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accom- 
plished and flourishing manhood.* 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be 
traced to some yices or follies which we have com- 
mitted. 

The spirit of true religion breathes mildness and 
affability. It gives a native, unaffected ease to the be- 
havior. 

Genuine virtue has a language that speaks to every 
heart throughout the world. 

He that cannot live well to-day will be less qualified 
to live well to-morrow. 

On whom does time hang so heavily as on the sloth- 
ful and lazy? To whom are the hours so lingering? 

What avails the show of external liberty to one who 
has lost the government of himself ? 

What misery does the vicious man secretly endure ! — 
Adversity, how blunt are all the arrows of thy quiver 
in comparison with those of guilt ! 

* Let your pupils parse all the words in these sentences except the verbs. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 

Ortogrul heard his flatterers without delight, because 
he found himself unable to believe them. His own 
heart told him its frailties; his own understanding 
reproached him with his faults. " How long," said he, 
with a deep sigh, "have I been laboring in vain to 
amass wealth, which at last is useless. Let no man 
hereafter wish to be rich, who is already too wise to be 
flattered." 

How fleet is a glance of the mind ! 

Compared with the speed of its flight, 
The tempest itself lags behind, 

And the swift- winged arrows of light. 
When I think of my own native land, 

In a moment I seem to be there ; 
But, alas ! recollection at hand, 

Soon hurries me back to despair. 



CONVERSATION III. 

CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 
REGULAR & IRREGULAR VERBS. 

In regard to their form, verbs are divided into 
two classes ; regular and irregular. 

A regular verb is a verb whose past tense and 
perfect participle are formed by adding ed to its 
present tense, or d only when it ends in e. 

An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense 
and perfect participle are not formed by add- 



ETYMOLOGY. 



47 



ing ed to its present tense, or d only when it ends 
in e. 

E. — How can we always tell whether a verb is regular 
or irregular ? 
Mr. S. — By learning this list of irregular verbs : 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Per/. Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, R. 


awaked. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Bear,* / 


bare, 


born. 


Bear,f 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken, 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave,:}: 


clove, cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


* Bear, to bring forth. 


• 
t Bear, to carry. 


J Cleave, to split. 



48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Per/. Part. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Bare,* 


durst, R. 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreamt, R. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got.f 


Gild, 


gilt,R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, R. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 



* Dare, to venture. 9 

t Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its derivative forgotten is still in good use. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


41 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense, 


* Perf. Part. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R, 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew, 


k:nown. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden, R. 


kay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie* 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit,R. 


lit, R. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, R. 


meant, R. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, R. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode.f 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


* Lie, to rest. 


t Bidden is nearly obsolete 


3 







50 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Part. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, R. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, R. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung, 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


51 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Part. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode, strid, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


String, 


strung, E. 


strung, E. 


Strive, 


strove, E. 


striven, E. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, E. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swet, E. 


swet, E. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, E. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, B. 


thriven, E. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, trod. 


Wake, 


woke, E. 


waked. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



P.— Why is R used after the past tense and perfect 
participle of some of these irregular verbs ? 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Mr. 8. — Because some of them are occasionally used 
as regular verbs : R stands for regular. When the 
regular form is preferable, it is used before the irreg- 
ular form at full length; and when a verb has two 
irregular forms, that which is sanctioned by the best 
authority is used before the other. 

A verb whose past tense or perfect participle has 
more than one form is called a redundant verb. 

J. — Does this list contain all our irregular verbs ? 

Mr. S. — It contains all of them that are primitive 
words. Derivatives are omitted, because their past 
tense and perfect participle are generally formed like 
the past tense and perfect participle of the verbs from 
which they are derived ; as, outbid, unbind, overdo, 
overcome, overlay, undertake, foretell, foreshow, be- 
speak, rebuild, withdraw, withhold, withstand, etc. 

TRANSITIVE & INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS. 

In regard to the construction of sentences, verbs 
are divided into two classes ; transitive and in- 
transitive. 

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses a 
transition of thought or action. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not 
express a transition of thought or action. 

R. — Mr. Smith, will you tell us what you mean by 
transition of thought ? 

Mr. S. — When James moves that book, there is a 
transition of action, because the action passes from 
James to the book ; and when we think what he does 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

to the book, there is a transition of thought, because 
the thought follows the action and passes from James 
to the book. Moves is therefore a transitive verb ex- 
pressing a transition of thought. But when we say 
James walks, the thought is confined to its subject 
James, because the action is confined to the actor, and 
walks does not express a transition of thought or 
action. It is therefore an intransitive verb. 

When a verb expresses what we think a person or 
thing does or did or will do to another, or what we 
think is done or was done or will be done to the per- 
son or thing that we are thinking of, it is transitive ; 
as, "John throivs the ball. The ball is thrown by John. 
Henry broke my slate. My slate was broken by Henry. 
The teacher will punish him. He will be punished by 
the teacher." All verbs that are not transitive are called 
intransitive verbs; as, "Birds sing, grass grows, flowers 
bloom, trees blossom. We work, we play, we run, we 
tvalk, we stand, we sit, we sleep" 

Every transitive verb expresses a transition of thought ; 
but some transitive verbs do not express any transition of 
action. Give us a few examples of such transitive verbs. 

H. — James resembles his father. Do you remember 
him? We have a large library, which contains some 
excellent books. How do you like our school ? I ad- 
mire this landscape. I hear soft music. I Smell sweet 
odors. I love them that love me, and those that 
me early shall find me. Do you see that horse ? Who 
oivns him? Avoid his heels : lie may kick yon. 

Mr. S. — Though there is no real transition of action 
expressed by any of these verbs, there is an actual tran- 
sition of thought expressed by every one of them. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verbs have six kinds of variations; voices, moods, 
tenses, participles, numbers, and persons. 

VOICES. 

Voice is a particular form of a transitive verb 
which shows whether the transition of thought 
or action is from the subject or to it. 

Transitive verbs have two voices; the active 
and the passive. 

The active voice is that form which shows that 
the transition is from the subject to an object. 

The passive voice is that form which shows 
that the transition is to the subject. 

The following definitions are less comprehensive, but 
more explicit. Use whichever you prefer. 

Voice is a particular form of a transitive verb 
which shows whether the action passes from the 
subject or to it. 

The active voice is that form which expresses 
an action done by the subject to an object. 

The passive voice is that form which expresses 
an action done to the subject. 

I can make you understand the voices better by good 
practical exercises than by any definitions. Tell me 
what any persons or things that you are thinking of, 
do, or did, or will do, or may do, or may have done to 
any other persons or things ; * and the verbs you use 
will be in the active voice. 

* This is liable to all the variations of mood and tense. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

T. — Men build cities. They buy and sell goods. 
Columbus discovered America. I have lost my knife. 
Hannibal might have taken Rome. 

Mr. So — Now tell me what is done to any persons or 
things that you are thinking of, or what was done, or 
will be done, or may be done, or might have been done to 
them ; and the verbs you use will be in the passive voice. 

67. — Cities are built. Goods are bought and sold. 
America was discovered by Columbus. My knife has 
been lost by me. Rome might have been taken by 
Hannibal. 

Mr. S. — Change the transitive verbs that I use from 
the active voice to the passive, and from the passive to 
the active. 

I rock this chair. I drop my book. I roll the ball. 

E. — The chair is rocked by me. My book is dropped 
by me. The ball is rolled by me. 

This chair rocks. My book drops. The ball rolls. 

E. — Bocks, drops, and rolls are here used as intransi- 
tive verbs, and therefore they cannot be changed to the 
passive voice: intransitive verbs cannot be varied by 
voice, because they have no voice. 

The trees are shaken and their branches are waved by 
the wind. 

W. — The wind shakes the trees and waves their 
branches. 

The trees shake and their branches wave. 

II — Shake and wave are intransitive verbs in this 
sentence, and therefore they cannot be changed to the 



56 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

active or the passive voice : they have no voice in this 
sentence.* 

My knife broke. John broke my knife. The earth 
moves. Who moves the earth ? The ice melts. What 
melts the ice ? It is melted by the sun. Water freezes. 
By what is water frozen ? Cold weather freezes it. He 
struck me. I struck at him and missed him. They 
are so lazy that they can hardly stir. We must stir 
them up. He was animated with hope ; he was incited 
by desire. Some can write better than they can speak. 
Who wrote these letters ? They were written by Junius. 
But who can tell us who he was ? We eat and drink 
too much. We must eat and drink, or starve. 

As he passed along, his ears were delighted with the 
morning song of the bird of paradise; he was fanned 
by the last nutters of the sinking breeze, and sprinkled 
with dew from groves of spices. He sometimes con- 
templated the towering height of the oak, monarch of 
the hills; and sometimes caught the gentle fragrance 
of the primrose, eldest daughter of the spring : all his 
senses were gratified, and all care was banished from 
his heart. 

MOODS. 

Mood is a distinction of verbs in regard to the 
manner in which actions and events are con- 
sidered, and thoughts are expressed. 

There are five moods ; the indicative, the po- 
tential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the 
infinitive. 

* See my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," pages 143-146. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

The indicative mood simply indicates an action 
or event. 

The potential mood denotes the possibility or 
necessity of an action or event, or the liberty, 
power, will, or obligation of the snbject in regard 
to it. 

The snbjunctive mood denotes the subjoining 
of one thought to another, so as to represent the 
action or event as doubtful or conditional. 

The imperative mood denotes a command or 
request, or permission. 

The infinitive mood is a certain form of a verb 
that denotes a dependent thought, and is not 
limited by number and person. 

TENSES. 

Tense is a distinction of verbs in regard to 
time. 

There are six tenses : the present, the past, and 
the future ; the perfect, the past-perfect, and the 
future-perfect. 

The present tense denotes present time. 

The past tense denotes past time. 

The future tense denotes future time. 

The perfect tense denotes the present comple- 
tion of a period of time. 

The past-perfect tense denotes the past comple- 
tion of a period of time. 

The future-perfect tense denotes the future 
completion of a period of time. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

A participle is a certain form of a verb that 
expresses a collateral thought, and is united in 
sense to another verb without a connective. 

There are three participles; the present, the 
perfect, and the past-perfect. 

The present participle denotes an unfinished 
action or event. 

The perfect participle denotes a finished action 
or event. 

The past-perfect participle denotes the comple- 
tion of an action or event before a specified point 
of time. 

H. — What is a finite verb ? 
Mr. S. — It is a verb that has number and person. 
Infinitives and participles are not finite verbs, because 
they have no number nor person. 

The number and person of a verb are the vari- 
ations which it has, in form or sense, to agree 
with its subject. 

CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrange- 
ment of all its variations. 

E. — Can all our verbs be conjugated ? 

Mr. 8. — All but a very few, which are called defective 
verbs and impersonal or unipersonal verbs. 

J. — I have never seen a dozen verbs conjugated in 
any of the grammars that I have studied. 

Mr. S. — The conjugation of a verb in your gram- 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

mars is presented as a model for the conjugation of any 
other similar verb. Now find the conjugation of the 
verb rule in your grammars, and I will conjugate any 
regular transitive verb according to that model. 

R. — Conjugate the regular transitive verb love. 

Mr. 8. — While I am conjugating it, compare it with 
the conjugation of any regular transitive verb in your 
grammars, and see how it agrees with the model. 





PEINCIPAL PARTS 




Present Tense. Past Tense. 
Love. Loved. 


Pres. Part. 
Loving. 


Perf. Part. 
Loved. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

lstpers. Hove, 1st pers. We love, 

2d pers. Thou lovest, 2d pers. You love, 

%d pers. He loves ; 3d pers. They love. 

Verbs in the third person singular in this tense and 

the auxiliary has in the perfect tense formerly ended in 

^instead of s; as, "He loveth,h.e hath loved." But 

this form is now obsolete, except in Scripture and the 

solemn style. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt, love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love : 3. They shall or will love. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 



Plural. 

1. I snail have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



61 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

Can and must may be used as auxiliaries in the pres- 
ent tense of this mood, and in the perfect tense ; and 
could, would, and should, in the past tense and the past- 
perfect ; as, " I can love, I must love ; I can have loved, 
I must have loved ; I could love, I would love, I should 
love ; I could have loved, I would have loved, I should 
have loved." 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 

3. If they love. 



1. If I love, 

2. If thou love, 

3. If he love ; 



The other tenses have the same form as in the in- 
dicative mood, except the future-perfect. If we repeat 
those tenses of the indicative mood with if prefixed, 
we shall put them into the subjunctive mood ; thus, 



1. If I loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 

3. If he loved ; 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved, 

2. If you loved, 

3. If they loved. 



FUTURE 
Singular. 

1. If I shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, 

3. If he shall or will love ; 



TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we shall or will love, 

2. If you shall or will love, 

3. If they shall or will love. 



62 ENGLISH GEAMMAIi. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved, 1. If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, 2. If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; 3. If they have loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 

3. If he shall have loved ; 3. If they shall have loved. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou ; 2. Love, or love ye. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To love ; To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Loving ; Loved ; Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They arc loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 
PAST TENSE. 



1. I was loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 

3. He was loved ; 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be lovedj 

3. He shall or will be loved ; 



63 



1. We were loved, 

2. You were loved, 

3. They were loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. You shall or will be loved, 

3. They shall or will be loved. 



PERFECT 
Singular. 

1. I have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 



TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We have been loved, 

2. You have been loved, 

3. They have been loved. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 



FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou may st be loved, 2. Yon may be loved, 

3. lie may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 



G4 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been loved, 

loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 
8. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 

This may be properly called the elliptical future tense, 
because it denotes future time with shall or should un- 
derstood. When a verb in the subjunctive mood denotes 
present time, it has the same form as in the present 
tense of the indicative mood; as, "If I am loved, if 
thou art loved, if he is loved, if we are loved," etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If lie were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

This is the form of the past tense indefinite, which is 
used to denote present, past, or future time. The past 
tense definite has the same form as the past tense of the 
indicative mood; as, "If I was loved, if thou wast loved, 
if he was loved." The other tenses of the subjunctive 
mood are similar in form to the corresponding tenses 
of the indicative, except the future-perfect, which re- 
quires shall instead of will in the second and the third 
person. Now repeat these four tenses of the indicative 
mood with if prefixed, and you will put the verb into 
the subjunctive mood ; as, " If I shall or will be loved, 
if I have been loved, if I had been loved, if I shall have 
been loved," etc. The potential mood may be changed 
to the subjunctive in the same manner; as, "If I can 
be loved, if I could be loved," etc. 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be loved, or 2. Be loved, or 

Be thou loved. Be ye loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 
To be loved ; 




Perfect Tense. 
To have been loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Present. 
Being- love^l ; 




Past-perfect. 
Having been loved. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

E. — Conjugate the irregular intransitive verb to be. 

Mr. S. — We have used it as an auxiliary to help con- 
jugate love through all the moods and tenscs v of the 
passive voice. Just take away the perfect participle 
loved, and see what we shall have left. 

E. — There is nothing left but be, conjugated as a 
' principal verb through all the moods and tenses. 

In regard to conjugation, verbs are divided into 
three classes ; principal, auxiliary, and defective. 

A principal verb is one that can be conjugated 
through all the moods and tenses. 

An auxiliary verb is one that is used to help 
conjugate principal verbs. 

A defective verb is one that can not be conju- 
gated through all the moods and tenses. 

The auxiliaries, be, do, and have, are often used as 
principal verbs ; and all of the defective verbs except 
beware, ought, and quoth, are used as auxiliaries. 

I will now conjugate be as a principal verb in the sin- 
gular number and first person. This will give you a 
general view of all its moods and tenses, which is com- 
monly called a synopsis. 

PKINCIPAL PAETS. 
Be, Was, Being, Been. 

Indicative Mood : I am, I was, I shall or will be, I have been, 
I had been, I shall have been. Potential Mood: I may, can, or 
must be ; I might, could, would, or should be ; I may, can, or 
must have been ; I might, could, would, or should have been. 
Subjunctive Mood : If I be, if I were, if I shall or will be, if I have 
been, if I had been, if I shall have been. Imperative Mood : Be, 
or be thou. Infinitive Mood : To be, to have been. Participles : 
Being, been, having been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 07 

Compare this with the conjugation of the regular 
transitive verb love, and tell me how we form the pas- 
sive voice. 

J. — We form the passive voice of a transitive verb by ' 
adding its perfect participle to the verb to he. 

Mr. S. — I will now conjugate speak in the progressive 
form, singular number and third person. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Speak, Spoke, Speaking, Spoken. 

Indie : He is speaking, lie was speaking, lie shall or will be 
speaking, he has been speaking, he had been speaking, he will 
have been speaking. Poten. : He may, can, or must be speak- 
ing ; he might, could, would, or should be speaking ; he may, 
can, or must have been speaking ; he might, could, would, or 
should have been speaking. Subjunc. : If he be speaking, if he 
were speaking, if he shall or will be speaking, if he has been 
speaking, if he had been speaking, if he shall have been speak- 
ing. Imper.: Be speaking, or be thou speaking. Infin.: To be 

speaking, to have been speaking. Part. : , , Having 

been speaking. 

We conjugate a verb in the progressive form by 
adding its present participle to the verb to he in all its 
variations. 

A verb in the progressive form denotes the progres- 
sion or continuance of an action. 

Here is the synopsis of the irregular transitive verb 
have in the active voice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Have, Had, Having, Had. 

Indie: We have, we had, we shall or will have, we have had, 
we had had, we shall havo had. Poten.: We may, can, or must 



G8 ENGLISH GKAM3IAK. 

have ; we might, could, would, or should have ; we may, can, or 
must have had ; we might, could, would, or should have had. 
Subjunc. : If we have, if we had, if we shall or will have, if we 
•have had, if we had had, if we shall have had. Imper. : Have, 
or have ye or you. Infin. : To have, to have had. Part. : Hav- 
ing, had, having had. 

Mr. S. — Now take particular notice how these verbs 
are conjugated. Then tell me how many tenses there 
are in every mood, and what auxiliaries are used as the 
signs of the different moods and tenses. 

J. — The indicative mood has six tenses. The present 
and the past tense have no auxiliaries in the active voice 
and common form. Shall or will is the sign of the 
future tense ; have, hast or has is the sign of the per- 
fect tense ; had or hadst is the sign of the past-perfect 
tense, and shall have or will have is the sign of the 
future-perfect. 

R. — The potential mood has four tenses. May, can, 
or must, is the sign of the present tense; might, could, 
ivould, or should, is the sign of the past tense; may 
have, can have, or must have, is the sign of the perfect 
tense; and might have, could have, would have, or 
should have, is the sign of the past-perfect. 

E.— The subjunctive mood has six tenses and the 
same auxiliaries as the indicative. If, lest, except, un- 
less, or whether, placed before the verb and its subject, 
is the sign of the subjunctive mood. 

P.— The imperative mood has but one tense. It is 
used to command or request, and has no particular sign. 

H— The infinitive mood has two tenses. To is the 
sign of the present tense, and to have is the sign of the 
perfect tense. 

M. — In the active voice, ing added to the present 



EXERCISE 11* PARSING. 09 

tense is the sign of the present participle. It is also 
the sign of the present participle of intransitive verbs. 
The sign of the perfect participle and past tense of all 
regular verbs is ed at the end of them. In the passive 
voice, being, placed before the perfect participle, is the 
sign of the present participle, and having been is the 
sign of the past-perfect participle. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING VERBS. 

Mr. S. — Select the verbs in the sentences I give you, 
and tell whether they are regular or irregular, transitive 
or intransitive, and mention all their variations; the 
voice of each transitive verb, the mood and tense or 
participle of every verb, and the number and person of 
every verb except infinitives and participles : then tell 
me their principal parts. 

I ring the bell. I do ring the bell. I am ringing 
the bell. The bell has been rung. The bell rings. 
The bells are ringing. 

J. — Ring is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
indicative mood and present tense, singular number and first per- 
son. The principal parts are, ring-, rung or rang, ringing, and 
rung. 

Do ring is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice and 
emphatic form, indicative mood and present tense, singular num- 
ber and first person. 

Am ringing is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice 
and progressive form, indicative mood and present tense, singu- 
lar number and first person. 

Has been rung is an irregular transitive verb, in the passive 
voice, indicative mood and perfect tense, singular number and 
third person. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Rings is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and present tense, singular number and third person. 

Are ringing is an irregular intransitive verb, in the progres- 
sive form, indicative mood and present tense, plural number and 
third person. 

Mr. S. — Why is do ring in the singular number and 
first person ? 

J. — Because its subject / is. 

Mr. 3. — Why is rings in the singular number and 
third person ? 

J. — Because its subject bell is. 

Mr. S. — Why is are ringing in the plural number 
and third person ? 

J. — Because its subject tells is: every finite verb 
must be in the same number and person that its sub- 
ject is in. We cannot very often tell the number and 
person of English verbs without observing their sub- 
jects ; for they have not a variation in form, like Latin 
verbs, for every number and person. 

I will now give you a synopsis of this verb in its dif- 
ferent forms, first as a transitive and then as an intran- 
sitive verb. The principal parts I have already given. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : I ring or do ring the bell, I rung or rang, or I did ring 
the bell, I shall or will ring the bell, I have rung the bell, I had 
rung the bell, I shall have rung the bell. Poten. : I may, can, or 
must ring the bell ; I might, could, would, or should ring the 
bell ; I may, can, or must have rung the bell ; I might, could, 
would, or should have rung the bell. Subjunc. : If I ring or do 
ring the bell ; if I rung or rang, or did ring the bell ; if I shall 
or ^yill ring the bell ; if I have rung the bell ; if I had rung the 
bell ; if I shall have rung the bell. Imper. : Ring the bell, or 



EXEKCISE I3ST PAKSItfG. 71 

do ring the bell. In fin. : To ring the bell, to have rung the belL 
Part. : Ringing the bell, rung,* having rung the bell. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Indie. : I am ringing the bell, I was ringing the bell, I shall or 
will be ringing the bell, I have been ringing the bell, I had been 
ringing the bell, I shall have been ringing the bell. Poten. : I 
may, can, or must be ringing the bell ; I might, could, would, or 
should be ringing the bell ; I may, can, or must have been ring- 
ing the bell ; I might, conld, would, or should have been ringing 
the bell. Subjunc. : If I be ringing or am ringing the bell, if I 
were or was ringing the bell, if I shall or will be ringing the bell, 
if I have been ringing the bell, if I had been ringing the bell, if 
I shall have been ringing the bell. Imper. : Be ringing or do be 
ringing the bell. Infin. : To be ringing the bell, to have been 

ringing the bell. Part. : , . Having been ringing 

the bellf 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : The bell is rung, it was rung, it shall or will be 
rung, it has been rung, it had been rung, it will have been 
rung. Poten. : It may, can, or must be rung ; it might, could, 
would, or should be rung ; it may, can, or must have been 
rung ; it might, could, would, or should have been rung. 
Subjunc. : If it be rung or is rung, if it were rung or was rung, 
if it shall or will be rung, if it has been rung, if it had been rung, 
if it shall have been rung. Imper. : Be rung or do be rung. 
Infin. : To be rung, to have been rung. Part. : Being rung, 
rung, having been rung. 



* The perfect participle is never used alone in the active voice. It is nsed 
with auxiliaries before it to form the perfect tense, the past-pcrfect, and the 
future-perfect. 

t Let your pupils sometimes conjugate a transitive verb in this manner, 
with its object after it in the active voice; and then let them use the object 
of the verb in the active voice as the subject in the passive voice. Let 
them conjugate verbs affirmatively, negatively, and interrogatively, in all 
their foi 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INTRANSITIVE. 

Indie. : The bell rings, it rung or rang, it shall or will ring, it 
has rung, it had rung, it will have rung. Poten. : It may, can, 
or must ring ; it might, could, would, or should ring ; it may, 
can, or must have rung ; it might, could, would, or should have 
rung. Subjunc. : If it ring or rings, if it rung or rang, if it shall 
or will ring, if it has rung, if it had rung, if it shall have rung. 
Imper. : Ring or do ring. Infin. : To ring, to have rung. 
Part. : Ringing, rung, having rung. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
Indie. : The bells are ringing, they were ringing, they shall or 
will be ringing, they have been ringing, they had been ringing, 
they will have been ringing. Poten. : They may, can, or must be 
ringing ; they might, could, would, or should be ringing ; they 
may, can, or must have been ringing ; they might, could, would, 
or' should have been ringing. Subjunc. : If they be ringing or 
are ringing, if they were ringing, if they shall or will be ringing, 
if they have been ringing, if they had been ringing, if they 
shall have been ringing. Imper. : Be ringing, or do be ringing. 

Infin. : To be ringing, to have been ringing. Part. : , 

, Having been ringing. 

J. — I have conjugated this verb affirmatively in every 
form. I will now conjugate it negatively ; and then I 
will conjugate it interrogatively. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Indie. : We do not ring the bell, we did not ring it, we shall 
not or will not ring it, we have not rung it, we had not rung it, 
we shall not have rung it. Poten. : We may, can, or must not 
ring the bell ; we might, could, would, or should not ring it ; we 
may, can, or must not have rung it ; we might, could, would, or 
should not have rung it. Subjunc. : If we do not ring the bell, 
if we did not ring it, if we shall not or will not ring it, if we 
have not rung it, if we had not rung it, if we shall not have rung 
it. Imper. : Do not ring the bell. Infin. : Not to ring the bell, 

not to have rung it. Part. : Not ringing the bell, , not 

having rung it. 



EXEECISE IN PARSING. 73 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : The bell is not rung, it was not rung, it shall not or 
will not be rung, it has not been rung, it had not been rung, it 
will not have been rung. Poten. : The bell may, can, or must 
not be rung-; it might, could, would, or should not be rung ; it 
may, can, or must not have been rung ; it might, could, would, 
or should not have been rung. Subjunc. : If the bell be not or is 
not rung, if it were not or was not rung, if it shall not or will 
not be rung, if it has not been rung, if it had not been rung, if 
it will not have been rung. Imper. : Be not rung, or do not be 
rung. Infin. : Not to be rung, not to have been rung. Part. : 
Not being rung, not rung, not having been rung. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : Do you ring the bell ? did you ring it ? will you ring 
it ? have you rung it ? had you rung it ? will you have rung it ? 
Poten. : Can you ring the bell ? could you ring it ? can you have 
rung it ? could you have rung it ? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : Is the bell rung ? was it rung ? will it be rung ? has it 
been rung ? had it been rung ? will it have been rung ? Poten. : 
Can the bell be rung ? could it be rung ? can it have been rung ? 
could it have been rung ? 

Verbs can be conjugated interrogatively in no other mood than 
the indicative and the potential ; for without these moods we can- 
not ask a question. 

Mr. S. — You may now apply a rule of syntax to every 
verb that you parse. 

They had bravely died to save their country. 

E. — Had died is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative 
mood and past-perfect tense, plural number and third person ; 
agreeing with its subject they, according to Rule VIII. The 
principal parts are, die, died, dying, and died. 
4 



74 EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To save is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, infin- 
itive mood and present tense ; relating to they as its subject, and 
depending on had died. — Rule IX. The principal parts are, save, 
saved, saving, and saved. 

He lias appointed us to do his work. 

P. — Has appointed is a regular transitive verb, in the active 
voice, indicative mood and perfect tense, singular number and 
third person; agreeing with its subject he. — Rule VIII. The 
principal parts are, appoint, appointed, appointing, and appointed. 
To do is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, infin- 
itive mood, and present tense ; relating to us as its subject, and 
depending on has appointed. — Rule IX. The principal parts are, 
do, did, doing, and done. 

M. — How can us be the subject of to do ? Must not 
the subject of a verb be in the nominative case ? 

Mr. 8. — The subject of a finite verb must always be 
in the nominative case ; but the subject of an infinitive 
or a participle is sometimes in the objective case. 

J. — Are infinitives and participles verbs ? 

Mr. S. — Yes ; they are verbs in the infinitive mood, 
and in the participles. They are not distinct parts of 
speech, but variations of verbs. We call them infin- 
itives and participles for the sake of brevity, as we call 
nouns and pronouns in different cases, nominatives, 
possessives, and objectives; and adjectives in the com- 
parative and superlative degrees, comparatives and 
superlatives. 

The sun was darkened ; the birds flew about aston- 
ished ; the beasts ran howling from the hills. 

H. — Was darkened is a regular transitive verb, in the passive 
voice, indicative mood and past tense, singular number and third 
person ; agreeing with its subject sun. — Rule VIII. The prin- 
cipal parts are, darken, darkened, darkening, and darkened. 



EXERCISE IK PARSING. 75 

Flew is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and past tense, pi ural number and third person ; agreeing with its 
subject birds. — Rule VIII. The principal parts are, fly, flew, 
flying, and flown. 

Astonished is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice and 
perfect participle ; relating to birds as its subject. — Rule X. The 
principal parts are, astonish, astonished, astonishing, and aston- 
ished. 

Ban is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and past tense, plural number and third person ; agreeing with 
its subject beasts. — Rule VIII. The principal parts are, run, ran 
or run, running, and run. 

Howling is a regular intransitive verb, in the present participle ; 
relating to beasts as its subject. — Rule X. The principal parts 
are howl, howled, howling, and howled. 

What must I do to be saved ? 

B. — Must do is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
potential mood and present tense, singular number and first per- 
son ; agreeing with its subject I. — Rule VIII. 

To be saved is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, 
infinitive mood and present tense ; relating to i" as its subject and 
depending on must do. — Rule IX. 

Seek ye the Lord while he may be found. 

M. — Seek is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
imperative mood and present tense, plural number and second 
person ; agreeing with its subject ye.— Rule VIII. The principal 
parts are, seek, sought, seeking, and sought. 

May be found is an irregular transitive verb, in the passive 
voice, potential mood, and present tense, singular number and 
third person; agreeing with its subject he. — Rule VIII. The 
principal parts are, find, found, finding, and found. 

Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

I). — Repent is a regular intransitive verb, in the subjunctive 
mood and present tense, plural number and second p i 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

agreeing with its subject ye. — Rule VIII. The principal parts 
are, repent, repented, repenting, and repented. 

Shall perish is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative 
mood and future tense, plural number and second person ; agree- 
ing with its subject ye. — Rule VIII. The principal parts are, 
perish, perished, perishing, and perished. 

Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's 
clothing. 

Beware is an irregular intransitive defective verb, in the im- 
perative mood and present tense, plural number and second per- 
son; agreeing with its subject ye or you, understood. — Rule VIII. 
This verb lacks some of the principal parts : it has no past tense 
and no participles. 

Gome is an irregular transitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and present tense, plural number and third person ; agreeing with 
its subject who. — Rule VIII. The principal parts are, Come, came, 
coming, and come. 

Art thou too fallen ? Do we see 
Thy mighty ones as low as we ? 

G. — Art fallen is an irregular intransitive verb, in the passive 
form, indicative mood and present tense, singular number and 
second person ; agreeing with its subject thou. — Rule VIII. The 
principal parts are, fall, fell, falling, and fallen. 

Do see is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, in- 
dicative mood and present tense, plural number and first person ; 
agreeing with its subject we. — Rule VIII. The principal parts 
are, see, saw, seeing, and seen. 

I will now conjugate these verbs interrogatively ; one 
in the singular number and second pei'son, and the 
other in the plural number and first person; just as 
they are used in these sentences. 

Indie. : Art thou fallen ? wast thou fallen ? shalt or wilt thou 
be fallen ? hast thou been fallen ? hadst thou been fallen ? wilt 



EXEECISE IK PAKSIKG. 77 

thou have been fallen ? Poten. : Mayst, canst, or must thou be 
/alien ? mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou be fallen ? 
mayst, canst, or must thou have been fallen ? mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst thou have been fallen ? 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : Do we see ? did we see? shall or will we see ? have we 

seen? had we seen? shall we have seen? Poten.: May, can, or 

must we see ? might, could, would, or should we see? may, can, or 

must we have seen ? might, could, would, or should we have seen ? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Indie. : Are we seen ? were we seen ? shall or will we be seen ? 
have we been seen ? had we been seen ? shall we have been seen ? 
Poten. : May, can, or must we be seen ? might, could, would, or 
should we be seen ? may, can, or must we have been seen ? might, 
could, would, or should we have been seen ? 

Parse the verbs in these sentences: 

The sun shines, it is shining. The grass grows, it is 
growing. I rock this chair, I am rocking the chair, it 
is rocked, it rocks, it is rocking. They melted the ore, 
they were melting the ore, it was melted, it melted, it 
was melting. If yon will open the door, I will come in. 
Do open the door. It shall be opened, if it can be 
opened. I have tried to open it; but it will not open. 
It is locked, and the key is gone. I can't open it. I 
ought to have taken better care of the key. What shall 
we do ? Something must be done. 

Think before you speak, and stop speaking when you 
have said all that you have to say. Avoid speaking 
evil of the absent. Leave off smoking and chewing 
tobacco. Felix, willing to show the Jews a pleasure, left 
Paul bound. She died without regret-— regretted by all. 
Having lived a virtuous life, I wish to die a natural 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

death. Lovest thou me? Feed my sheep. Follow 
thou me. Cease to do evil. Next week I shall have, 
beeu here six months. The harvest is past, the sum- 
mer is ended, and we are not saved. Arise, shine ; for 
thy light is come, and the glory of the Lord is risen 
upon thee. Hast thou appealed unto Caesar? unto 
Caesar shalt thou go. This man might have been set 
at liberty, if he had not appealed unto Caesar. 

Although the vine its fruit deny, 

Although* the olive yield no oil, 
The withering fig-tree droop and die, 

The fields elude the tiller's toil, 
The empty stall no herd afford, 

And perish all the bleating race, 
Yet -will I triumph in the Lord — 

The God of my salvation praise. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISE. 

Mr. S. — Tell me the construction of these sentences, 
and parse them. 

Emma broke my slate and gave me hers. 

W. — Emma is the subject of broke and gave, slate is the object 
of broke, and hers is the object of gave, my is in the possessive 
case, and me is the object of to, understood. 

As hers is equivalent in sense to her slate, it represents the 
name of the possessor and also the name of the thing possessed : 
it stands for Emma's slate, and is in the possessive case and also 
in the objective. 

F. — Is not slate understood after hers ? 
W. — If it is understood after hers, it can be properly 
supplied. Let us see. " Emma broke my slate and 

* Although, as well as though, is sometimes the sign of the subjunctive 
mood. 



EXERCISE IK PARSING. 79 

gave rue hers slate." Is this good English ? Don't you 
see that slate is represented by hers and not understood 
after it ? 

Emma is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case; the subject of the 
verbs broke and gave. — Rule I. 

Broke and. gave are irregular transitive verbs, in the active 
voice, indicative mood and past tense, singular number and. third, 
person ; agreeing with their subject Emma. — Rule VIII. The 
principal parts are, break, broke, breaking, and broken ; give, 
gave, giving, and given. 

My is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of slate. 
—Rule III. 

Slate is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of broke. — Rule II. 

And is a connective ; connecting " gave me hers " to " broke 
my slate." — Rule XIII. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and objective case ; the object of to, understood. — 
Rule II. 

Hers is a personal pronoun, standing for Emma's slate, in 
the feminine gender, singular number, third person, and posses- 
sive case, in form ; but in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case, in construction ; the object of gave. — 
Rule II. 

Boys, the girls have recited their lesson correctly ; but 
yours is very imperfect. Ours is harder than theirs. 

B. — The case of boys depends on no other word ; girls is the 
subject of have recited, and lesson is the object ; their is in the 
possessive case, and yours is the subject oi is ; ours is the subject 
of is, an&theirs is the subject of is, understood. Yours is equiva- 
lent in sense to your lesson, and is in the possessive case and also 
in the nominative. Ours and theirs are equivalent in sense to 
our lesson and their lesson. Here our stands for boys, and tlnir 
stands for girls. 



8 J ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Boys is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case independent. — Rule V. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to girls. — Rule VII. 

Girls is a common noun, in the feminine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of have recited. 
—Rule I. 

Have recited is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
indicative mood and perfect tense, plural number and third per- 
son ; agreeing with its subject girls. — Rule VIII. The principal 
parts are recite, recited, reciting, and recited. 

Their is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender and plural 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent girls. — Rule VI. ; in the 
taird person and possessive case ; denoting the possession of les- 
son. — Rule III. 

Lesson is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of have recited. — 
Rule II. 

Correctly is an adverb of manner ; relating to have recited. — 
Rule XII. 

But is a connective ; connecting "yours is very imperfect " to 
" the girls have recited their lesson correctly." — Rule XIII. 

Tours is a personal r^ronoun, standing for your lesson, in the 
masculine gender, plural number, second person, and possessive 
case, in form ; but in neither gender, singular number, third per- 
son, and nominative case, in construction ; the subject of is. — 
Rule I. 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with 
its subject yours.— Rule VIII. The principal parts are, be, was, 
being, and been. 

Very is an adverb of degree ; relating to imperfect. — Rule XII. 

Imperfect is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; be- 
longing to yours.— Rule VII. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, standing for our lesson, in the 
masculine gender, plural number, first person, and possessive 
case, in form ; but in neither gender, singular number, third per- 
son, and nominative case, in construction ; the subject of is. — 
Rule VIII. 



EXERCISE m PARSING. 81 

Harder is a common adjective, in the comparative degree ; be- 
longing to ours. — Rule VII. 

Than is a connective ; connecting " theirs [is] " to " ours is 
harder."— Rule XIII. 

Theirs is a personal pronoun, standing for girls' lesson, in the 
feminine gender, plural number, third person, and possessive 
case, in form ; but in neither gender, singular number, third per. 
son, and nominative case, in construction ; the subject of is, under- 
stood. — Rule I. 

These books are mine. 

F. — Books is the subject of are, and mine is in predication with 
hooks. 

T/iese is a common adjective ; belonging to books. — Rule VII. 

Books is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are.— Rule I. 

Are is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing with its 
subject books. — Rule VIII. The principal parts are, be, was, 
being, and been. 

Mine is a personal pronoun standing for my books, in either 
gender, singular number, first person, and possessive case, in 
form ; but in neither gender, plural number, third person, and 
nominative case, in construction ; in predication with books. — 
Rule IV. 

J. — How can we distinguish the subject and the 
predicate ? 

Mr. S. — This is a logical distinction, of but little 
consequence in showing the grammatical construction 
of sentences. We can distinguish them very easily. 
Underscore the logical subject and call the rest of the 
sentence or clause the predicate, in this manner : 

The mountains rose, and the rivers flowed. The 
sun and moon began their course in the skies. 

Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide to 



82 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

us in all the duties of life. A discreet man looks for- 
ward into futurity. His hopes are fall of immortality; 
his schemes are large and glorious. 

Am I my brother's keeper ? Dust thou art, and unto 
dust shall thou return. So fades a summer cloud away. 
How can these things be ? Is not this the Christ ? 
"Why will ye die ? Follow thou me. Here we are. 

Omar, the son of Hassan, had passed seventy-five 
years in honor and prosperity. Terrestrial happiness is 
of short continuance. The brightness of the flame is 
wasting its fuel; the fragrant flower is passing away in 
its own odors. 

A barren island boasts his humble birth : 

His fame for wisdom fills the spacious earth, 

SENTENCES TO BE PAESED. 

We must be just before we can be liberal. 

Our laws resemble spiders' webs; which entangle 
feeble insects, and let the stronger ones escape. 

" He who allows his son to be an idler," says the old 
proverb, " makes him a thief." 

Early rising and steady habits promote health and 
prosperity. The sluggard, who expects Providence to 
help him, will be disappointed. Providence helps those 
that help themselves. 

"What a smiling aspect does the love of parents and 
children, of brothers and sisters, of friends and rela- 
tions, give to every surrounding object and every 
returning day! 



SYNTAX. 83 

How many clear marks of benevolent intention ap- 
pear everywhere around us! What a profusion of 
beauty and ornament is poured forth on the face of 
nature ! 

This murderous chief, this ruthless man, 
This head of a rebellious clan, 
Hath led thee safe, through watch and ward, 
Far past Clan-Alpine's outmost guard. 



CONVEKSATION IV. 

SYNTAX. 

Mr. 8. — We will now take a general view of sen- 
tences. 

A sentence is such an expression of thought as 
makes complete sense. 

Every sentence must contain a finite verb and a sub- 
ject, either expressed or understood ; which are called 
its principal parts. 

Sometimes a sentence has three principal parts ; the 
verb, its subject, and its object. 

J. — We have been taught that a sentence has but two 
principal parts ; the subject and the predicate. 

E. — Is not the predicate always a verb ? 

Mr. S. — A verb is sometimes the whole predicate, but 
not very often. The predicate frequently consists of 
several parts of speech ; for it includes the verb and its 
object and all their adjuncts; as, "My good old friend 
always lends me the best books in his library." In this 



84 EXGLISH GKAMMAK. 

sentence, my good old friend is the logical subject, and 
always lends me the lest books in his library is the pred- 
icate. Such an analysis of sentences as this is beyond 
the grammarian's province. It confounds the parts of 
speech, and mixes up grammar with logic so as to 
puzzle and confuse the learner. 

In regard to their construction, sentences are 
divided into two classes ; simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that contains 
but one finite verb.* 

A compound sentence is a sentence that con- 
tains more than one finite verb, either expressed 
or understood. 

A clause is a part of a compound sentence 
containing one finite verb and its subject, or 
more than one. 

Clauses, as well as sentences, are either simple 
or compound. If a clause contains but one finite 
verb, it is simple ; if it contains more than one, 
it is compound. 

A phrase is an expression that consists of two 
or more parts of speech, but does not contain a 
finite verb and a subject. 

A paragraph is the expression of an unbroken 
train of thought. 

In regard to their use, sentences and clauses 
are divided into four classes ; declarative, imper- 
ative, interrogative, and exclamatory. Clauses 
are also divided into two classes ; principal and 
subordinate. 

* See my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," pages 30&-309. 



SYNTAX. 85 

A declarative sentence or clause is one that 
expresses a declaration. 

An imperative sentence or clause is one that 
expresses a command or request, or permission. 

An interrogatory sentence or clause is one that 
is used to ask a question. 

An exclamatory sentence or clause is one that 
is used to express emotion. 

A principal clause is an independent or lead- 
ing clause. 

A subordinate clause is a clause that depends 
upon another. 

a.— Let us see your rules of syntax. 

Mr. S. — Here they are. Commit them all to memory. 

RULE I. — Nominatives. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the 
nominative case. 

RULE II. — Objectives. 
The object of a verb or preposition must be in 
the objective case. 

RULE III.— Possessives. 
A noun or pronoun that denotes possession or 
ownership must be in the possessive case. 

RULE IV.— Same Cases. 
A noun or pronoun in apposition or predica- 
tion with another must agree with it in case. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

KULE V. — Nominatives Independent. 
A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no 
other word is in the nominative case independent. 

EULE VI.— Pronouns. 
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender and number. 

EULE VII.— Adjectives. 
An adjective belongs to a noun or pronoun. 

EULE VIII.— Finite Verbs. 
A finite verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person. 

EULE IX.— Infinitives. 
An infinitive relates to a noun or pronoun as 
its subject, and generally depends on a verb or 
noun, an adjective or adverb. 

EULE X.— Participles. 
A participle relates to a noun or pronoun as 
its subject. 

EULE XL— Prepositions. 
A preposition expresses the relation of its ante- 
cedent term to its object. 

EULE XIL— Adverbs. 
An adverb relates to a verb, an adjective, a 
preposition, or another adverb. 



SYNTAX. 87 

RULE XIII. —Connectives. 
A connective connects words or phrases, clauses, 
sentences, or paragraphs. 

RULE XIV.— Ellipsis. 
Such words as weaken or encumlber a sentence 
should he omitted ; "but none that are essential to 
its harmony, correctness, perspicuity, or strength. 

RULE XV.— GrENEBAL PEINCIPLES. 

Every word should have the application, form, 
and construction, that are sanctioned hy the "best 
authority ; and all the parts of a sentence should 
correspond to one another. 

J. — Are these all the rules of syntax that you have ? 

Mr. S. — These are all the leading rules. I have some 
special rules subordinate to some of these, which I will 
now present as notes. 

NOTES TO RULE I. 

1. Every nominative that is not independent, or in 
apposition or predication with another, should be the 
subject of a verb. 

2. When a verb in the active yoice is followed by two 
objects, the direct object should be made the subject 
of the verb in the passive voice. * i 

NOTES TO RULE II. 
1. Every transitive verb in the active voice and every 
preposition requires an object. 

* See the examples under these and the following notes in my "Inductive 
and Progressive English Grammar," pages 231-2-10. 



88 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

2. An intransitive verb does not admit an object, un- 
less it is used transitively. 

3. The object of a verb or preposition should not be 
so far separated from it as to produce ambiguity or in- 
elegance. 

4. A verb that has two objects generally retains one 
of them in the passive voice. 

5. A verb in the active voice is sometimes followed 
by a direct object and an indirect one, which is gen- 
erally considered the object of a preposition under- 
stood. 

6. A verb sometimes appears to have two objects 
when both words signify the same person or thing, and 
one of them is therefore in apposition with the other. 

7. Nouns denoting the time of an action or event, 
repetition, duration, extent of space or distance, direc- 
tion, the measure of quantity or quality, or of excess, 
deficiency, or difference, are generally in the objective 
case without a preposition expressed. 

NOTES TO EULE III. 

1. Every noun and pronoun in the possessive case 
should have its proper form. 

2. The sign of possession should be used immediately 
before the name of the thing possessed, either expressed 
or understood, and nowhere else. 

3. When of with its object is equivalent in sense to 
a possessive, that form should be used which the per- 
spicuity and arrangement of the sentence, as well as 
variety and euphony, require : a disagreeable repetition 
of either should be avoided by a proper intermixture of 
both, or by a different construction of the sentence. 



SYNTAX. 89 

4. For the sake of euphony, we omit the apostrophic 
s, but retain the apostrophe, in plural nouns ending 
with s, and in some singular nouns ending with the 
sound of s, especially in poetry, but not yery often in 
prose, unless the following word begins with s, 

NOTES TO EULE VI. 

1. When a collective noun that is used as an ante- 
cedent expresses many as one whole, it requires a singu- 
lar pronoun ; but when it expresses many as individuals, 
it requires a plural pronoun. 

2. Two or more antecedents taken together require a 
plural pronoun. 

3. Two or more singular antecedents taken sepa- 
rately require a singular pronoun. 

4. "When antecedents or subjects that are taken to- 
gether are in different persons, in making the pronoun 
or verb agree with them in the plural number, we pre- 
fer the second person to the third, and the first to either 
or both of the other persons. 

5. When antecedents that are taken separately are in 
different genders, numbers, or persons, strict propriety 
requires the pronoun to agree with each antecedent 
separately. 

6. Who is applied to persons, and to things personi- 
fied ; and which, to things not personified. 

7. That is applied to persons and things. It is pref- 
erable to who or which when it is preceded by the inter- 
rogative who, by antecedents representing persons and 
things, by the adjective same, by a superlative, by an 
unlimited antecedent before a restrictive clause, and 
whenever the propriety of who or ivhich is doubtful. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The connective pronouns, who, which, that, and 
as, must agree with their antecedents in person, as well 
as in gender and number, and verbs must agree with 
them accordingly. 

9. When the subject and the predicate nominative 
are in different numbers or persons, and a pronoun is 
made to agree with either of them as its antecedent, that 
agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence. 

10. The same antecedent must be represented by the 
same pronoun in the different parts of a sentence. 

11. Such pronouns as the sense requires should be 
used, and be so placed as to prevent ambiguity or in- 
elegance. 

12. When the structure of the sentence will not allow 
a pronoun to be so placed as to show clearly what it 
represents, the antecedent should be repeated, or the 
sentence should be differently constructed. 

NOTES TO KULE VII. 

1. An adjective denoting unity or plurality and the 
noun to which it belongs must agree in number. 

2. Such adjectives as the sense requires should be 
used; and none that are not essential to the perspi- 
cuity, strength, or harmony of the sentence. 

3. Every adjective should be so placed as to show 
clearly to what it belongs, and best promote the perspi- 
cuity, strength, and elegance of the sentence. 

4. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound 
euphony requires an, and a before a word beginning 
with a consonant sound. 

5. An adjective should not be used for an adverb, nor 
an adverb for an adjective. 



SYNTAX. 91 

6. When the latter term of comparison excludes the 
former, the comparative degree should be used. But 
when the latter term of comparison includes the former, 
the superlative should be used. 

7. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided. 

8. Adjectives whose signification is not capable of 
increase or diminution, do not admit comparative ter- 
minations nor adverbs of degree. 

NOTES TO RULE VIII. 

1. When a collective noun that is used as a subject 
expresses many as one whole, it requires a singular verb ; 
but when it expresses many as individuals, the verb 
must be plural. 

2. A sentential subject or antecedent requires a sin- 
gular verb or pronoun. 

3. Two or more subjects taken together require a 
plural verb. 

4. Two or more singular subjects taken separately 
require a singular verb. 

5. When subjects that are taken separately are in 
different numbers or persons, the verb must agree with 
that which is placed nearest to it. But it is generally 
better to use the verb or its auxiliary with each sub- 
ject. 

6. Two or more nouns that signify the same person 
or thing can hardly be considered distinct subjects or 
antecedents: they are only different names, titles, or 
epithets, for the same subject or antecedent ; and there- 
fore they require singular verbs and pronouns. 

7. Every finite verb must have a subject. 



92 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

NOTES TO EULES IX AND X. 

1. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after bid, 
let, make, see, hear, and feel, in the active voice, and 
sometimes after behold, observe, perceive, dare, need, 
have, and help. 

2. After stop, leave off, commence, continue, keep, 
abhor, avoid, forbear, and help, participles are generally 
used instead of infinitives. 

3. A participle should not have the construction of a 
verb and that of a noun or adjective at the same time. 

4. Every infinitive and every participle that is not 
used abstractly should have its proper subject. 

5. Every infinitive and every participle should have 
its proper form and application: one should not be 
used for the other, nor should either of them be used 
where a finite verb or a noun would better express the 
meaning. 

6. We should be extremely careful to give the past 
tense and the perfect participle the forms that are sanc- 
tioned by the best authority, and never to use one of 
them for the other. 

7. An infinitive or participle that is used abstractly, 
though it has no subject, generally retains its object, 
and enough of the nature of a verb to have adverbs re- 
lating to it. 

8. An abstract infinitive does not relate to any sub- 
ject, and sometimes an infinitive that has a subject 
does not depend on a verb, noun, or adjective, or any 
other word. 

NOTES TO RULE XI. 
1. Every preposition should express the relation in- 
tended. 



SYNTAX. 03 

2. No unnecessary preposition should be used, nor 
should any preposition that the sense requires be 
omitted. 

3. A preposition should be placed so near the terms 
of relation as to preyent ambiguity or inelegance. 

NOTES TO EULE XII. 

j.. Adyerbs should be so placed as to express the 
meaning clearly and elegantly. 

2. Double negatives should be avoided, unless we 
mean to express an affirmation. 

3. We should be careful to use such adverbs as the 
sense requires, and such as are sanctioned by the best 
authority. 

NOTES TO EULE XIII. 

1. Correlative connective should be properly adapted 
to the words with which they are coupled ; as, Both — 
and, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, though — 
yet, as — as, as — so, so — as, so — that, such — as, such 
— that, else — than, other — than, and rather — than. 
The latter word in each of these pairs is the proper 
correlative of the former. 

2. We should be careful to use such connectives as 
the sense requires, and such as are sanctioned by the 
best authority. 

NOTES TO EULE XIV. 
1. Before adjectives connected to others that describe 
different persons or things having the same name, a or 
the should be repeated, and so should a numeral. But 
when such adjectives describe the same persons or 
things, these words should not be repeated. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The same expression should not be repeated in 
such a manner as to produce monotony. But em- 
phatic repetitions, properly used, are very elegant. 

NOTES TO KTJLE XV. 

1. Unauthorized innovations like the doubling of 
the verb to le as an auxiliary in the passive voice, 
as well as obsolete expressions, vulgarisms, puerilities, 
slang phrases, barbarisms, and the solemn style in 
familiar discourse, should be avoided. 

2. The moods and tenses of verbs, their voices, and 
their different forms, should be so used as to express 
our thoughts correctly and elegantly. 

3. In familiar discourse, we sometimes contract two 
short words into one, by omitting some of the letters 
for the sake of fluency and brevity. We say don't for 
do not, doesn't for does not, isn't for is not, arn't for 
are not, wasn't for was not, wern't for were not, haven't 
for have not, hasn't for has not, hadn't for had not, 
shan't for shall not, won't for will not, can't for can 
not, couldn't for could not, wouldn't for would not, and 
shouldn't for should not ; I'm for I am, he's for he is, 
'tis for it is, we're for we are, I'll for I will, we'll for we 
will, I've for I have, etc, In parsing such expressions, 
supply what is omitted and parse the original words at 
full length. 

SENTENCES CORRECTED. 

Mr. S. — I will now present you a few models for cor- 
recting sentences, and show you how to apply the rules 
and notes : 



SYNTAX. 95 

Them that he trusted betrayed him. 

Them should be in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of the finite verb trusted; thus, " They that he trusted 
betrayed him ; " according to Rule I. 

Who do you see ? 

Who should be in the objective case, because it is the object of 
the verb do see ; thus, " Whom do you see ? " — Rule II. 

Every mans rights must be respected. 

Mans is in the possessive case, and should therefore have the 
proper form ; thus, " Every man's rights must be respected." — 
Note 1 to Rule III. 

I see Mr. Brown, he that we visited last week. 

He should be in the objective case, because it is in apposition 
with Mr. Brown, the object of the verb see ; thus, "I see Mr. 
Brown, him that we visited last week." — Rule IV. 

Is it him ? 

Him should be in the nominative case, because it is in predica- 
tion with it, the subject of the finite verb is; thus, " Is it he ? " 
—Rule IV. 

Me being young, they deceived me. 

Me should be in the nominative case independent, because its 
case depends on no other word ; thus, " I being young, they de- 
ceived me." — Rule V. 

The lion was in its den. 
Its should be in the masculine gender, because its antecedent 
lion is ; thus, " The lion was in his den."— Rule VI. 

Every nation must govern themselves. 

Themselves should be in the singular number, because its 
antecedent nation is singular ; thus, ** Every nation must govern 
itself."— Rule VI. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Emma. Euth, or Phebe, left their books here. 

Their should be in the singular number, because its antece- 
dents, Emma, Ruth, and Phebe, are singular and are taken 
separately ; thus, " Emma, Ruth, or Phebe, left her books here." — 
Note 3 to Rule VI. 

The snow is three foot deep. 

Foot should be plural to agree with the adjective three ; thus, 
u The snow is three feet deep." — Note 1 to Rule VII. 

When was you there ? 

Was should be plural, because its subject you is plural ; thus, 
" When were you there ? " — Rule VIII. 

Is Euth and Mary here ? 

Is should be plural, because its subjects, Ruth and Mary, are 
taken together ; thus, " Are Ruth and Mary here." — Note 3 to 
Rule VIII. 

James or Charles have torn my book. 

Have torn should be singular, because its subjects, James and 
Charles, are singular and are taken separately ; thus, " James or 
Charles has torn my book." — Note 4 to Rule VIII * 



SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED. 

EULE I. 

Them that we cannot trust should be discharged. 
John and me have finished our task. Thee can see 
what has been done. Who broke this slate ? Him and 
me. I am as much to blame as him. Why are they 
better than us ? 

* See my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar," pages 260-263. 



97 



NOTES TO EULE I. 



1. My foes they are gone, and my friends they are 
here. Friendship, what is it but a name ? 2. I was 
offered fifty dollars. He was denied admittance. 

RULE II. 

They that have injured me I forgive. Who should I 
meet but my old friend ? He that is idle and disobe- 
dient punish or expel. Who did he speak to ? 

NOTES TO EULE II. 

1. I wrote to, and informed them of my misfortune. 
I saw, and spoke to him. 2. He sat him down. Flee 
thee away. 3. Whom did you buy that book of ? It 
is a book which I am well pleased with. He spent, 
every night, all his money. 

NOTES TO EULE III. 

1. *This is Henrys book. Our fathers house is 
cur's. 2. Who was Cain's and Abel's mother ? Adam 
was Cain, as well as Abel's father. Is this Ruth or 
Mary's watch ? I left the cloth at Brown's, the tailor's. 
3. This is my friend's uncle's farm. One of the 
brothers of my wife is dead. 4. Ask no questions for 
conscience's sake. 

Why did I write ? what sin to me unknown 
Dipped me in ink ? — my parents, or my own 1 

* The number of each note that is violated is shown by a fii^re placed be 
fore the examples. 

5 



98 ENGLISH" GEAMMAR. 

RULE IV. 
Brown was killed, him that I mentioned before. I 
have seen your cousins, they that were here last sum- 
mer. It is me. It was not her ; it was him. Whom 
do you think they are ? Who do you take them to be ? 
Was it him or her ? Is it me ? 

RULE V. 

Us being poor, our friends neglected us. Him that 
hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

But him the chieftain of them all, 
His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

RULE VI. 

My horse broke its bridle. Don't rob the poor bird 
of its young. Let every man attend to their own busi- 
ness. 

NOTES TO RULE VI. 

1. We dispersed the mob and arrested their leader. 
The committee disagreed in its sentiments. 2. Avoid 
vanity and affectation : it renders its possessor ridicu- 
lous. 3. Neither Ann nor Ida learned their lessons. 
4. You and they, as well as I, have done our duty. 5. 
Charles or Emma broke their slate. You or I must 
relinquish our claim. 6. Our Father which art in 
heaven. 7. We can learn from the men and the things 
which we see. He is the best orator whom I have ever 
heard. 8. I am verily a man who am a Jew. Are you 
the girl that were here yesterday ? 9. You are a man 
who loves his country, and who have always been true 
and faithful. 10. If you help others, they will help 



thee. 11. Set one shoe on both of my horses. 12. We 
perceive the beauty of an object without considering 
the cause of it. 

NOTES TO EULE VII. 

1. These kind of indulgences are very dangerous. 
The wall is sixty rod long. 2. America is illustrious 
for high trees and tall mountains. 3. He has a new 
suit of clothes. They are faithful, kind, generous, and 
honest. 4. A ounce of gold is worth more than an 
hundred ounces of brass. 5. Speak loud and plain. 
Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often 
infirmities. 6. Gold is heavier than any metal. The 
sun is the largest of all the planets. She is the better 
singer of the two. 7. He is the most noblest Roman 
of them all. 8. He gave the fullest and most sincere 
proof of the truest friendship. 

RULE VIII. 

We was slighted. Was you there? Was they in- 
vited? A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 
In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. Thou 
should love thy neighbor as thyself. Was there more 
impostors than one ? 

NOTES TO RULE VIII. 

1. A large army were collected. The people elects 
our officers. 2. Smoking and chewing tobacco are for- 
bidden. 3. Ruth and Emma has recited. Was James 
and Henry there? 4. He or she are to blame. Wis- 
dom or folly govern us. To lie or to swear are im- 
moral. 5. You or I are deceived. He or they are 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to blame. 6. Our Lord and Saviour were crucified be- 
tween two thieves. 7. You are the boys whom I saw 
here yesterday, and stole my apples. 

NOTES TO RULES IX AND X. 

1. You need not to go. Bid them to come in. 2. 
Have you commenced to build your house ? Who can 
forbear to admire their fidelity? 3. I could not help 
admiring of them. Is such language becoming a Chris- 
tian? 4. By reading good books our minds are im- 
proved. It is my intention to do my duty. 5. I in- 
tend paying all my debts. It is hard going against the 
current. I believe him to be an impostor. 6. She 
begun to read. He come here last week. The water is 
froze and the glass is broke. The moon had rose. 

NOTES TO EULE XL 
1. It is founded in truth. He died with a fever. 
He walks by a cane with moonlight. 2. He was ban- 
ished England. Tell to me the truth. 3. I came with, 
and went away without them. You can see how the 
world goes, with half an eye. 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 
1. We should be always careful of our reputation. I 
never have heard him use profane language. 2. No 
man has never been so afflicted. I cannot, by no means, 
give my consent. 3. Ask me never so much dowry. 

NOTES TO RULE XIII. 
1. Have you no other excuse but this ? He is neither 
honest or capable. I am not either an orator nor a poet 



SYKTAX. 101 

2. We will stay here while they return. I was afraid 
lest I should give offense. I do not deny but I was 
imprudent. 

EULE XIV. 
The more I read his poems, I like them better. We 
pledge our lives, fortunes, and sacred honor. I have 
seen the Eastern and Western continent. I caught a ' 
large and small fish. 

RULE XV. 

I set in this chair and learn you grammar. He laid 
on the bed and I sot by him. Can you grow wheat on 
your farm ? He was awful wrathy, and he gave me a 
terrible yank. He is as old, if not older than I am. 
She is a better reader, but not so good a writer as 
Emma. 

NOTES TO RULE XV. 

1. The bread is being baked. The meat is being 
fried. See them birds. These are splendid peaches. 2. 
It is sewn yery neatly. If he have earned his wages, I 
will pay him. I will go to-morrow, unless it rains. I 
intended to have gone yesterday. Such language hadn't 
ought to be made use of. Our early history is lost 
sight of. 3. I doesn't know. He don't care. She aint 
here. They wasn't invited. I wan't there. IJaint he 
been here ? 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CORRECTIONS OF FALSE 
SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

They that we cannot trust * John and /. Thou canst see. 
He and I. As he. Than we f 

NOTES TO RULE I. 
1. My foes are gone, and my friends are here. What is friend- 
ship but a name ? 2. Fifty dollars were offered me. Admittance 
was denied him. 

RULE II. 
Them that have injured me I forgive. Whom should I meet ? 
Him that is idle. To whom did he speak ? 

NOTES TO RULE II. 
1. I wrote to them. I saw him. 2. He sat down. Flee away. 
3. Of whom did you buy that book? With which I am well 
pleased. He spent ail his money every night. 

NOTES TO RULE III. 

1. Henry's book. Our father's house is ours. 2. Who was 
Cain and Abel's mother? Adam was Cain's, as well as Abel's 
father. Is this Ruth's or Mary's watch ? At Brown's, the tailor. 
3. This farm belongs to my friend's uncle. One of my wife's 
brothers is dead. 4. For conscience' sake. My parents', or my 
own? 

RULE IV. 

He that I mentioned before. Them that were here. It is I. 
It was not she ; it was he. WIw do you think they are ? Whom 
do you take them to be ? Was it he or she t Is it I? 

* In correcting these sentences I have carefully avoided the use of needless 
words, and only taken enough of each example to make the correction clearly 
understood. The student or teacher should supply what is omitted, and re- 
peat the whole of each sentence properly corrected. 



103 



RULE V. 



We being poor. He that hath ears to hear. But he the chief- 
tain of them all. 

RULE VI. 
His bridle. Her young. His own business. 

NOTES TO RULE VI. 
1. Its leader. In their sentiments. 2. They render their pos- 
sessor ridiculous. 3. Her lessons. 4. Your duty. 5. Charles 
broke his slate, or Emma broke hers. You must relinquish your 
claim, or I must relinquish mine. 6. Our Father who art in 
heaven. 7. The men and the things that we see. That I have 
ever heard. 8. Who is a Jew. That was here. 9. And who has 
always been true and faithful. 10. They will help you. 11. On 
each of my horses. 12. Without considering the cause of its beauty. 

NOTES TO RULE VII. 

1. This kind of indulgences. Sixty rods long. 2. America is 
famous for tall trees and high mountains. 3. He has a suit of 
new clothes. They are faithful, honest, kind, and generous. 
4. An ounce of gold is worth more than a hundred ounces of 
brass. 5. Speak loudly and plainly. Thy frequent infirmities. 
6. Gold is heavier than any other metaL The sun is larger than 
any of the planets. She is the best singer of the two. 7. He is 
the noblest Roman. 8. He gave a full and sincere proof of true 
friendship. 

RULE VIII. 

We were slighted. Were you there? Were they invited? 
Charms the eye. Consists. Thou shouldst love. Were there 
more impostors? 

NOTES TO RULE VIII. 

1. Was collected. Elect. 3. Is forbidden. 3. Hare recited. 
Were James and Henry there ? 4. 1% to blame. QowrnavA, Ts 
immoral. 5. You are deceit ed, or 1 am. He is to blame, or tbey 
are. G. Was crucified. 7. Whom I saw here yesterday, and who 
stole my apples. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NOTES TO RULES IX AND X. 

1. You need not go. Bid tliem come in. 2. Have you com- 
menced building t Who can forbear admiring their fidelity? 
3. Admiring them. Becoming to a Christian? 4. By reading 
good books we improve our minds. I intend to do my duty. 
5. I intend to pay all my debts. It is hard to go against the cur- 
rent. I believe that he is an impostor. 6. She began. He came. 
Is frozen. Is broken. Had risen. 

NOTES TO RULE XI. 

4. It is founded on truth. Of a fever. He walks with a cane 
by moonlight. • 2. He was banished from England. Tell me the 
truth. 3. I came with them. You can see, with half an eye, 
how the world goes. 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 

1. We should always be careful. I have never heard him. 
2. No man has ever been so afflicted. I cannot, by any means, or 
I can, by no means, give my consent. 3. Ask me ever so much 
dowery. 

NOTES TO RULE XIII. 

1. Have you no other excuse than this? or no excuse but this? 
He is neither honest nor capable. I am neither an orator nor a 
poet. 2. We will stay here till they return. I was afraid that I 
should give offense. I do not deny that I was imprudent. 

RULE xrv. 

The better I like them. Our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
The Eastern and the Western continent. A large fish and a 
small one. 

RULE XV. 

I sit and teach. He lay on the bed, and I sat by him. Can 
you raise wheat ? He was very angry, and he gave me a terrible 
jerk. He is as old as I am, if not older. She is a better reader 
than Emma, but not so good a writer. 



SYNTAX. 105 

NOTES TO RULE XV. 

1. The bread is baking. The meat is frying. Those birds. 
Excellent peaches. 2. It is sewed. If he lias earned his wages. 
Unless it rain. I intended to go. Such language ought not to be 
used. We lose sight of our early history. 3. I don't know. He 
doesn't care. She isn't here. They wern't invited. I wasn't 
there. Hasn't he been here ? * 

* For further exercises in false syntax, and for exercises in analysis, 
orthography, elocution, punctuation, versification, and the figures of speech, 
see my " Inductive and Progressive English Grammar." 



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In < U vou say, let truth and candor shine. 



Ethereal fo>nis, O winged words ! 

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What messages you bear ! 









